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Anatomy & Physiology: Cardiovascular, Lymphatic, Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, Reproductive, and Development Systems

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  • Myocardium
    The thick, muscular layer of the heart wall composed of specialized cardiac muscle cells called cardiomyocytes responsible for rhythmic contractions.
  • Intercalated Discs
    Specialized junctions between cardiomyocytes containing desmosomes for mechanical attachment and gap junctions for electrical impulse passage.
  • Right Atrium
    Heart chamber that receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the superior and inferior vena cava.
  • Left Ventricle
    Heart chamber that pumps oxygenated blood to the body through the aorta; has the thickest wall for high-pressure systemic circulation.
  • Tricuspid Valve
    Valve between right atrium and right ventricle that prevents backflow into the atrium.
  • Pulmonary Circuit
    Circulatory pathway: right ventricle → pulmonary arteries → lungs → pulmonary veins → left atrium.
  • Tunica Media
    Middle layer of blood vessels made of smooth muscle and elastic fibers that regulate vessel diameter and blood pressure.
  • Differences between Arteries and Veins
    Arteries have thick muscular walls, smaller lumen, no valves, and high pressure; veins have thin walls, larger lumen, valves, and low pressure.
  • Capillaries
    Blood vessels with a single endothelial layer where exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes occurs.
  • Lymph
    Clear fluid derived from interstitial fluid that returns excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream and transports immune cells.
  • Right Lymphatic Duct
    Drains lymph from the right upper quadrant of the body into the right subclavian vein.
  • Diaphragm function in respiration
    Main muscle of ventilation; contracts for inhalation and relaxes for exhalation.
  • Medulla Oblongata and Pons
    Brain centers that control breathing rate and depth.
  • Digestive tract pathway
    Mouth → Pharynx → Esophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine → Large Intestine → Anus.
  • Histological layers of the digestive tube
    Mucosa (secretion, absorption), Submucosa (support), Muscularis externa (peristalsis), Serosa/Adventitia (protection).
  • Nephron
    Functional unit of the kidney including renal corpuscle and renal tubule responsible for filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
  • RAAS system
    Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System that increases blood pressure by producing angiotensin II and aldosterone.
  • Spermatogenesis vs Spermiogenesis
    Spermatogenesis is sperm formation; spermiogenesis is maturation of spermatids into spermatozoa.
  • Ovarian cycle phases
    Follicular phase (FSH stimulates follicles), ovulation (LH surge), luteal phase (corpus luteum secretes progesterone).
  • Germ layers formed during gastrulation
    Ectoderm (skin, nervous system), Mesoderm (muscles, bones, cardiovascular), Endoderm (epithelial linings).
  • Placenta function
    Site of nutrient, gas, and waste exchange between maternal and fetal blood.
  • Fetal circulation structures
    Foramen ovale (atria opening) and ductus arteriosus (connects pulmonary artery to aorta) close after birth.
  • Umbilical cord vessels
    Two arteries carry deoxygenated blood to placenta; one vein carries oxygenated blood to fetus.
  • Cardiac cycle phases
    Systole: ventricular contraction ejecting blood; Diastole: ventricular relaxation filling chambers.
  • Pulmonary arteries vs pulmonary veins
    Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood to lungs; pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood to the heart.
  • Precapillary sphincters
    Muscle rings that regulate blood flow into capillary beds.
  • Lymphocyte types and functions
    B cells produce antibodies; T cells mediate cell immunity; NK cells destroy infected or tumor cells.
  • Hormonal regulation of early pregnancy
    hCG maintains corpus luteum; progesterone and estrogen support endometrium.
  • Labor stages
    Cervical dilation, fetal descent, and expulsion of fetus and placenta.