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Anatomy & Physiology: Cell and Bone Fundamentals

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  • Cell Theory

    All living things are made of cells. The cell is the basic unit of life. Cells come from preexisting cells.

  • Plasma Membrane Composition

    Made of a phospholipid bilayer, proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol.

  • Phospholipid Bilayer Properties

    Hydrophilic heads face water; hydrophobic tails avoid water, forming a selective barrier.

  • Functions of Plasma Membrane

    Selectively permeable, provides protection, and enables communication.

  • Role of Cholesterol in Membrane

    Stiffens and stabilizes the membrane and decreases water permeability.

  • Types of Membrane Proteins

    Channel, carrier, and receptor proteins determine membrane functions.

  • Simple Diffusion

    Movement of molecules from high to low concentration without ATP, e.g., O₂, CO₂, steroids.

  • Osmosis

    Diffusion of water toward areas with higher solute concentration or lower water concentration.

  • Facilitated Diffusion

    Movement from high to low concentration using channel or carrier proteins without ATP.

  • Active Transport

    Moves substances from low to high concentration using ATP.

  • Sodium-Potassium Pump

    For each ATP, pumps 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in.

  • Functions of the Nucleus

    Control center of the cell, houses DNA, stores genetic info, and controls protein synthesis.

  • Ribosomes Function

    Site of protein synthesis.

  • Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

    Has ribosomes; involved in protein synthesis and transport.

  • Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

    Involved in lipid metabolism, steroid synthesis, and detoxification.

  • Golgi Apparatus Functions

    Modifies, packages, and sorts proteins and lipids; forms transport vesicles.

  • Mitochondria Role

    Produces ATP via cellular respiration; known as the powerhouse of the cell.

  • Phases of Mitosis (PMAT)

    Prophase: chromosomes condense; Metaphase: chromosomes align; Anaphase: chromatids separate; Telophase: nuclear envelopes reform.

  • Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis

    Mitosis produces 2 identical cells with 46 chromosomes; Meiosis produces 4 nonidentical gametes with 23 chromosomes.

  • 6 Functions of Bone

    Support, protection, muscle anchorage, mineral storage, blood cell formation, and fat storage.

  • Axial vs Appendicular Skeleton

    Axial: skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum; Appendicular: limbs and girdles.

  • Classification of Bones by Shape

    Long (femur), short (carpals), flat (sternum), irregular (vertebrae).

  • Compact vs Spongy Bone

    Compact: dense, organized osteons; Spongy: trabeculae, lighter, contains red marrow.

  • Bone Cells: Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, Osteoclasts

    Osteoblasts build bone; osteocytes maintain matrix; osteoclasts break down bone.

  • Osteon Structure

    Central canal (blood vessels, nerves), lamellae (matrix rings), lacunae (osteocytes), canaliculi (channels).

  • Organic vs Inorganic Bone Matrix

    Organic: collagen for flexibility; Inorganic: calcium phosphate for hardness.

  • Endochondral Ossification

    Bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage; forms most bones of the body.

  • Epiphyseal Plate Function

    Site of lengthwise bone growth; closes to stop growth.

  • Calcium Homeostasis Hormones

    PTH increases blood calcium by stimulating osteoclasts; Calcitonin lowers blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclasts.

  • Wolff’s Law

    Bone remodels according to the stress placed on it (e.g., weightlifting strengthens bones).