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Anatomy & Physiology: Digestive, Respiratory, Urinary, Reproductive Systems and Metabolism

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  • Oral cavity boundaries
    Bounded by lips, cheeks, palate, and tongue; anterior opening is the oral orifice; continuous with oropharynx posteriorly.
  • Functions of intrinsic and extrinsic tongue muscles
    Intrinsic muscles change tongue shape; extrinsic muscles alter tongue position.
  • Three types of tongue papillae
    Filiform (roughness/friction), fungiform (reddish hue), circumvallate (V-shaped row at back).
  • Three pairs of extrinsic salivary glands
    Parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands.
  • Functions of saliva
    Cleanses mouth, moistens and dissolves food chemicals, aids bolus formation, contains enzymes breaking down starch.
  • Control of salivation
    Extrinsic glands secrete enzyme-rich saliva in response to food stimuli; strong sympathetic stimulation inhibits salivation.
  • Classification of teeth by shape and function
    Incisors cut, canines tear/pierce, premolars and molars grind/crush.
  • Tooth structure main regions
    Crown (exposed, covered by enamel) and root (embedded in jawbone, covered by cementum).
  • Gomphosis joint
    Fibrous joint anchoring tooth in alveolus via periodontal ligament.
  • Pharynx functions
    Passage for food to esophagus and air to trachea; lined with stratified squamous epithelium; has inner longitudinal and outer pharyngeal constrictor muscles.
  • Soft palate role during swallowing
    Closes off nasopharynx to prevent food entry.
  • Muscle types in esophagus
    Skeletal muscle in superior part; smooth muscle in inferior part.
  • Six essential digestive activities
    Ingestion, propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, defecation.
  • Peritoneum layers and functions
    Visceral covers organs; parietal lines body wall; mesentery provides vascular/nerve supply and organ support.
  • Four tunics of GI tract wall
    Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa (or adventitia in esophagus).
  • Enteric nervous system components
    Submucosal plexus (regulates glands and mucosal muscle) and myenteric plexus (controls GI tract motility).
  • Stomach regions
    Cardiac, fundus, body, pyloric region; greater and lesser curvatures.
  • Four secretory cells in gastric glands
    Mucous neck cells (acid mucus), parietal cells (HCl and intrinsic factor), chief cells (pepsinogen), enteroendocrine cells (gastrin and other hormones).
  • Phases of gastric secretion
    Cephalic (before food), gastric (food in stomach), intestinal (food in duodenum).
  • Liver lobes and ligaments
    Right, left, caudate, quadrate lobes; falciform ligament separates right and left lobes; ligamentum teres is fetal umbilical vein remnant.
  • Portal triad components
    Bile duct, hepatic artery (oxygen-rich blood), hepatic portal vein (nutrient-rich blood).
  • Functions of hepatocytes
    Produce bile, process nutrients, store vitamins, detoxify substances.
  • Composition and function of bile
    Contains bile salts (emulsify fats), bile pigments (bilirubin), cholesterol, neutral fats, phospholipids, electrolytes.
  • Pancreas exocrine function
    Secretes pancreatic juice with enzymes and bicarbonate to neutralize acid chyme.
  • Regulation of pancreatic secretion
    CCK stimulates enzyme-rich juice; secretin stimulates bicarbonate-rich juice; vagal stimulation also promotes secretion.
  • Small intestine structural modifications
    Plicae circulares (folds), villi (fingerlike projections), microvilli (cell membrane projections) increase surface area.
  • Motility in small intestine
    Segmentation mixes contents; peristalsis moves contents toward large intestine.
  • Large intestine unique features
    Teniae coli (longitudinal muscle bands), haustra (pouches), epiploic appendages (fat-filled pouches).
  • Functions of large intestine
    Absorbs water, electrolytes, vitamins from bacteria; propels feces toward anus.
  • Metabolism definition
    All chemical reactions to maintain life; includes anabolic (building) and catabolic (breaking down) reactions.
  • Glycolysis key points
    Glucose oxidized to pyruvic acid; produces 2 ATP net; NAD+ reduced to NADH.
  • Krebs cycle outputs per acetyl CoA
    3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 2 CO2, 1 ATP.
  • Oxidative phosphorylation mechanism
    Electron transport chain pumps H+ creating gradient; ATP synthase uses gradient to make ATP.
  • Lipoprotein types and functions
    VLDL transports triglycerides to tissues; LDL delivers cholesterol to tissues; HDL removes excess cholesterol to liver.
  • Water-soluble vitamins absorption
    Absorbed in GI tract; B12 requires intrinsic factor for absorption.
  • Fat-soluble vitamins absorption
    Bind to dietary lipids; absorbed with digestion products.
  • Respiratory system zones
    Conducting zone (airways to alveoli); respiratory zone (site of gas exchange: alveoli).
  • Boyle's law in breathing
    Pressure and volume inversely related; volume changes in thorax cause air flow.
  • Pulmonary ventilation phases
    Inspiration (air in), expiration (air out).
  • Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR)
    Flow of fresh gases into and out of alveoli per minute; increased by slow deep breathing.
  • Medullary respiratory centers
    Dorsal respiratory group sets basic rhythm; ventral respiratory group controls forced breathing.
  • Chemoreceptor control of breathing
    Central chemoreceptors respond to CO2/pH; peripheral chemoreceptors respond to O2, CO2, and pH.
  • Kidney main functions
    Filter blood, remove wastes, regulate blood volume, electrolyte and acid-base balance.
  • Nephron components
    Glomerulus (filtration), proximal tubule (reabsorption), loop of Henle (concentration), distal tubule and collecting duct (secretion and reabsorption).
  • Juxtaglomerular apparatus function
    Regulates blood pressure and filtration rate via renin release.
  • Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) regulation
    Controlled by renal autoregulation, neural input, and hormonal (renin-angiotensin) mechanisms.
  • Tubular reabsorption
    Return of most filtrate contents to blood; sodium reabsorption drives water and solute reabsorption.
  • Countercurrent mechanism in kidney
    Loop of Henle and vasa recta maintain medullary osmotic gradient for urine concentration.
  • Renal clearance definition
    Volume of plasma cleared of a substance per unit time; used to assess kidney function.
  • Male reproductive accessory glands
    Seminal vesicles (60% semen volume), prostate gland (milky fluid), bulbourethral glands (mucus).
  • Spermatogenesis overview
    Spermatogonia undergo mitosis, meiosis forms spermatids, spermiogenesis forms mature sperm.
  • Blood-testis barrier
    Formed by Sertoli cells' tight junctions; protects developing sperm from immune system.
  • Hormonal regulation of male reproduction
    GnRH stimulates FSH and LH; FSH promotes spermatogenesis; LH stimulates testosterone production.
  • Oogenesis phases
    Oogonia multiply in fetus; primary oocytes arrested in prophase I; at puberty meiosis resumes producing secondary oocyte and polar bodies.
  • Ovarian cycle phases
    Follicular phase (days 1-14), ovulation (day 14), luteal phase (days 14-28).
  • Uterine cycle phases
    Menstrual (days 1-5), proliferative (days 6-14), secretory (days 15-28).
  • Hormonal control of ovarian cycle
    FSH and LH stimulate follicle growth; estrogen and progesterone regulate feedback and uterine changes.
  • Female secondary sex characteristics
    Breast growth, fat deposition in hips/breasts, widened pelvis, pubic and axillary hair growth.