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Anatomy & Physiology Exam 1 Study Guide

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  • What is Anatomy & Physiology (A&P)?

    Anatomy is the study of body structure, and Physiology is the study of body function.

  • What are the structural hierarchy levels in the human body?

    Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ systems → Organism. Each level is made of the previous one.

  • Name the four main body systems and their primary functions.

    Integumentary: protection; Muscular: movement; Skeletal: support and protection; Nervous: control and communication.

  • What are necessary life functions? Give an example related to the plasma membrane.

    Functions essential for life like maintaining boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, etc. Example: Plasma membrane regulates what enters/exits the cell, showing maintaining boundaries.

  • What are the components of a biological control system?

    Sensor: detects change; Control center: processes info; Effector: carries out response.

  • Compare negative and positive feedback with examples.

    Negative feedback reverses a change (e.g., body temperature regulation). Positive feedback enhances a change (e.g., blood clotting).

  • What happens to the body when walking outside in summer heat?

    Body activates effectors like sweat glands to cool down, maintaining homeostasis via negative feedback.

  • Define anatomical position and give examples of directional terms.

    Standard body position: standing, facing forward, palms up. Terms: Medial (toward midline), Lateral (away from midline).

  • What are the abdominopelvic quadrants and which organs are in the spleen and stomach regions?

    Spleen is in the left upper quadrant. Stomach is in the left hypochondriac and epigastric regions.

  • Name the main anatomical planes.

    Sagittal: divides left/right; Frontal (coronal): divides front/back; Transverse: divides top/bottom.

  • What are the major internal body cavities?

    Dorsal cavity: cranial and spinal; Ventral cavity: thoracic and abdominopelvic.

  • Differentiate kinetic and potential energy with examples.

    Kinetic energy is energy of motion; Potential energy is stored energy. Example: ATP stores potential energy, released as kinetic during muscle contraction.

  • What elements make up most of the human body?

    Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen are the primary elements.

  • How do isotopes of an element differ?

    Isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

  • Compare solutions, colloids, and suspensions.

    Solutions: homogeneous mixtures; Colloids: heterogeneous but particles don't settle; Suspensions: particles settle over time.

  • What types of chemical bonds exist between atoms?

    Bonds form between electrons. Types: Ionic, Covalent, and Hydrogen bonds.

  • What are synthesis and decomposition reactions?

    Synthesis: building molecules; Decomposition: breaking molecules down.

  • How does temperature affect chemical reaction rates?

    Higher temperature generally increases reaction rates by providing more energy.

  • Explain pH and the role of the bicarbonate buffer system.

    pH measures H+ concentration; low pH = acidic. Bicarbonate buffer stabilizes pH by neutralizing excess acids or bases.

  • What is the difference between acids and bases?

    Acids release H+ ions; Bases accept H+ ions or release OH- ions.

  • What are the main macromolecules in the body?

    Carbohydrates, fats (lipids), and proteins.

  • What affects enzyme activity and what is denaturation?

    Enzymes have optimal temperature and pH. Denaturation is loss of enzyme shape and function due to extreme conditions.

  • Compare DNA and RNA.

    DNA stores genetic info; RNA helps in protein synthesis. DNA is double-stranded; RNA is single-stranded.

  • What is the plasma membrane made of and its function?

    Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins; it regulates entry and exit of substances.

  • Name types of cell junctions.

    Tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions connect cells and allow communication or barrier formation.

  • Differentiate active and passive transport with examples.

    Passive transport: no energy, e.g., diffusion; Active transport: requires energy, e.g., sodium-potassium pump.

  • What is tonicity? Define hypotonic and hypertonic solutions.

    Tonicity describes solute concentration outside cells. Hypotonic: lower solute outside, cells swell. Hypertonic: higher solute outside, cells shrink.

  • What are endocytosis and exocytosis?

    Endocytosis: cell engulfs material; types include phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Exocytosis: cell expels material.

  • What is resting membrane potential?

    It is the negative electrical charge inside a cell relative to outside, essential for nerve and muscle function.

  • What are ligands and receptors?

    Ligands are molecules that bind to receptors on cells to trigger a response.

  • What are the main organelles in a cell?

    Nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and others.

  • Describe the cell cycle phases relevant to DNA replication and mitosis.

    DNA replicates during S phase. Mitosis divides the nucleus into two identical sets.

  • If DNA strand is ATG, what is the complementary DNA strand?

    Complementary DNA strand is TAC.

  • What is semiconservative replication?

    Each new DNA molecule contains one original strand and one new strand.

  • What are the steps of mitosis?

    Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.

  • Describe transcription and translation in protein synthesis.

    Transcription copies DNA to RNA; translation reads RNA to build proteins using codons.

  • If DNA is ATG, what is the RNA strand?

    RNA strand is UAC.

  • What is the central dogma of molecular biology?

    Information flows from DNA to RNA to protein.