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Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Key Concepts

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  • Order of structures filtrate passes through in the nephron

    Filtrate flows through the glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct.

  • Order of vascular structures through the nephron

    Blood flows through the afferent arteriole, glomerulus, efferent arteriole, peritubular capillaries, and vasa recta.

  • Factors determining Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)

    GFR is determined by net filtration pressure, surface area of the filtration membrane, and filtration membrane permeability.

  • Three types of filtration pressure in the nephron

    Glomerular hydrostatic pressure (pushes fluid out), capsular hydrostatic pressure (pushes fluid in), and blood colloid osmotic pressure (pulls fluid in).

  • Path of food through the digestive system

    Food travels through the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus.

  • Major GI hormones and their functions

    Includes gastrin (stimulates acid secretion), secretin (stimulates bicarbonate release), and cholecystokinin (CCK) (stimulates bile and enzyme release).

  • Secretory cells of gastric mucosa

    Includes mucous cells (secrete mucus), parietal cells (secrete HCl and intrinsic factor), and chief cells (secrete pepsinogen).

  • Differences between bacteria and viruses

    Bacteria are living cells that can reproduce independently; viruses are non-living and require a host cell to replicate.

  • Classes of antibodies

    Includes IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD, each with distinct roles in immune defense.

  • Five functional categories of epithelia

    Includes protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, and sensory reception.

  • Types of connective tissue

    Includes loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood.

  • Four tissue types in the body

    Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.

  • Where ATP production steps occur in the cell

    Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain occur in the mitochondria.

  • Main substrates and yields of ATP production

    Glucose is broken down to pyruvate; yields ~2 ATP in glycolysis, ~2 ATP in Krebs cycle, and ~28-34 ATP in electron transport chain.

  • Intracellular fluid (ICF) vs extracellular fluid (ECF)

    ICF is fluid inside cells (~2/3 body water); ECF is outside cells (~1/3 body water), including plasma and interstitial fluid.

  • Types of membrane transport

    Includes passive transport (diffusion, osmosis), active transport, and vesicular transport.

  • Phases of membrane potential changes

    Depolarization: membrane potential becomes less negative; repolarization: returns to resting potential; hyperpolarization: membrane potential becomes more negative than resting.

  • Neural vs endocrine reflexes

    Neural reflexes are fast and short-lived; endocrine reflexes are slower but longer-lasting.

  • Four categories of membrane receptors

    Ligand-gated ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors, enzyme-linked receptors, and intracellular receptors.

  • Steps of muscle contraction

    Includes excitation, excitation-contraction coupling, contraction, and relaxation phases.

  • Comparison of muscle types

    Skeletal: voluntary, striated; cardiac: involuntary, striated; smooth: involuntary, non-striated.

  • Action potential of cardiac contractile cells

    Characterized by a rapid depolarization, plateau phase due to Ca2+ influx, and repolarization.

  • Four lung volumes

    Tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and residual volume.

  • Four lung capacities

    Inspiratory capacity, functional residual capacity, vital capacity, and total lung capacity.