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Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Review

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  • What are chemical messengers released into the bloodstream?

    Hormones

  • How does the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland?

    By sending hormones that either stimulate or inhibit hormone release from the pituitary.

  • Which hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary?

    TSH, ACTH, Gonadotropins (FSH, LH), GH, Prolactin, and MSH.

  • Which hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary?

    Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin.

  • What do the beta cells of the pancreas produce and what is its function?

    Insulin, which lowers blood glucose and increases glycogen production in the liver.

  • What is the term for when one hormone is needed for a second hormone to produce an effect?

    Permissive effects

  • What molecule transports oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood?

    Hemoglobin

  • What is rouleaux in blood?

    Stacks of red blood cells.

  • Why do red blood cells only live about 120 days?

    Because they lack a nucleus.

  • Where does iron from broken down hemoglobin go?

    Primarily to the spleen, then liver and bone marrow; eventually excreted in urine.

  • When is bilirubin elevated clinically?

    In blocked bile ducts or liver dysfunction such as hepatitis, gallstones, or cirrhosis.

  • If the tricuspid valve leaks, which direction does blood flow?

    Backward from the right ventricle into the right atrium.

  • Define systole and diastole.

    Systole: heart contraction (blood leaves). Diastole: heart relaxation (blood fills).

  • Which valves close during the first and second heart sounds?

    First sound (lubb): AV valves close. Second sound (dupp): semilunar valves close.

  • Which vessels enter the right atrium?

    Superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, and coronary sinus.

  • What is the correct flow of blood through the heart?

    Right atrium → Right ventricle → Lungs → Left atrium → Left ventricle → Aorta → Body.

  • What is the function of ADH?

    Regulates water absorption by increasing permeability and aquaporins in collecting ducts.

  • Where does the majority of filtration occur in the nephron?

    Glomerulus

  • Define a buffer in physiology.

    Substance that temporarily neutralizes acids by storing H+ to minimize pH changes.

  • What carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder?

    Ureters

  • Difference between incontinence and urinary retention?

    Incontinence: inability to control urination. Urinary retention: inability to urinate.

  • How does the kidney raise blood pressure?

    RAAS increases sodium and water reabsorption, raising blood volume and pressure.

  • Functions of the urinary system?

    Adjust blood volume/pressure, regulate plasma ions, stabilize pH, conserve nutrients, remove toxins, produce calcitriol and EPO.

  • Which coenzymes transfer hydrogen to the electron transport chain?

    FAD and NAD

  • Difference between intracellular and extracellular fluid?

    Intracellular: cytosol inside cells (~2/3 body fluid). Extracellular: interstitial fluid, plasma, lymph, CSF, synovial, serous, aqueous humor.

  • Where does most nutrient absorption occur in digestion?

    Small intestine

  • Order of urine flow in the kidney?

    Renal papilla → Minor calyx → Major calyx → Renal pelvis → Ureter.

  • Main function of the proximal convoluted tubule?

    Reabsorption of nutrients

  • Largest waste product in urine?

    Urea

  • Define metabolism.

    Sum of anabolism and catabolism.

  • Define menarche and menopause.

    Menarche: onset of first uterine cycle. Menopause: end of menstruation.