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Anatomy & Physiology Ultimate Exam Study Guide

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  • Muscular System Core Exam Organ and Functions

    Skeletal muscle (e.g., Biceps brachii) generates heat for thermoregulation and provides locomotion and posture.

  • Integumentary System Core Organ and Functions

    Skin (Epidermis/Dermis) synthesizes Vitamin D and acts as a physical barrier against pathogens and water loss.

  • Levels of Structural Organization Ascending Order

    Atom → Molecule → Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism

  • Anatomical Position Description

    Standing erect, facing forward, feet flat and slightly apart, upper limbs at sides, palms facing forward (supinated).

  • Sagittal Section Definition

    Cut parallel to the long axis, separating the body into left and right portions.

  • Membrane Lipid Components and Functions

    Phospholipids form the lipid bilayer; Cholesterol stabilizes membrane fluidity across temperatures.

  • Hydrophilic vs. Hydrophobic Membrane Regions

    Hydrophilic heads face extracellular and cytoplasmic fluids; Hydrophobic tails form the membrane interior, repelling water.

  • Molecules Crossing the Membrane by Simple Diffusion

    Small, non-polar gases like \(O_2\) and \(CO_2\), and lipids pass directly through the lipid bilayer.

  • Functions of Tight Junctions

    Interlocking membrane proteins fuse cells to prevent water and solute leakage between cells; found in stomach and urinary bladder linings.

  • Unique Structure of Red Blood Cells

    Biconcave disc shape, lacks nucleus and organelles, increasing surface area for gas diffusion and flexibility through capillaries.

  • Phases of the Cell Cycle

    Interphase: cell growth and DNA replication; Mitosis: nuclear division and cytokinesis.

  • Cancer and Cell Cycle Checkpoints

    Cancer results from mutations that bypass cell cycle checkpoints, preventing apoptosis and causing uncontrolled cell division.

  • Four Primary Tissue Types (CEMN)

    Connective, Epithelial, Muscular, and Nervous tissues.

  • Major Functions of Epithelial Tissue

    Protection, permeability control, sensation, and specialized secretions.

  • Keratinocytes in the Epidermis

    Produce keratin, a fibrous protein that strengthens and waterproofs the skin.

  • Melanocytes Location and Function

    Located in the Stratum Basale; produce melanin to protect DNA from UV damage by shading nuclei.

  • Six Primary Functions of Skin

    Protection, thermoregulation, excretion, sensation, Vitamin D3 synthesis, and blood reservoir.

  • Structure of Compact Bone Osteon

    Central (Haversian) canal surrounded by concentric lamellae of mineralized matrix with osteocytes in lacunae connected by canaliculi.

  • Bone Matrix Composition and Function

    ~2/3 inorganic minerals provide hardness; ~1/3 collagen fibers provide flexibility and tensile strength.

  • Endochondral Ossification Process

    Hyaline cartilage template is replaced by bone; chondrocytes hypertrophy and die, osteoblasts deposit bone matrix forming primary ossification center.

  • Synovial Joint Structural Layers

    Outer fibrous layer (dense irregular CT), inner synovial membrane (loose areolar CT), articular cartilage (hyaline), and synovial fluid.

  • Three Factors Contributing to Synovial Joint Stability

    Bone surface fit, number and arrangement of ligaments, and muscle tone (most vital).

  • Flexion vs. Extension Movements

    Flexion decreases the angle between bones; extension increases the angle; both occur in the sagittal plane.

  • Supination and Pronation of the Forearm

    Supination rotates radius parallel to ulna (palm up); pronation rotates radius across ulna (palm down).