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Cardiovascular System - Anatomy & Physiology

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  • What is hemodynamics?

    Hemodynamics is the study of blood flow and the forces involved in circulation within the cardiovascular system.

  • What are the main components of the heart's conduction system?

    The main components are the sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers.

  • Define ECG.

    An ECG (electrocardiogram) records the electrical activity of the heart over time.

  • Identify the main waves and intervals on an ECG.

    The main waves are P wave, QRS complex, and T wave. Key intervals include the PR interval and QT interval.

  • What is the cardiac cycle?

    The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in one heartbeat, including atrial and ventricular systole and diastole.

  • Describe the heart sounds.

    Heart sounds are caused by valve closures: S1 is the closing of AV valves, and S2 is the closing of semilunar valves.

  • What is a heart murmur?

    A heart murmur is an abnormal sound caused by turbulent blood flow, often due to valve defects.

  • What is the significance of a pressure gradient in circulation?

    A pressure gradient drives blood flow from areas of higher pressure to lower pressure through vessels.

  • Name the two most important factors in arterial blood pressure.

    The two key factors are cardiac output and total peripheral resistance.

  • Define cardiac output.

    Cardiac output is the volume of blood the heart pumps per minute, calculated as stroke volume times heart rate.

  • Define stroke volume.

    Stroke volume is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle in one contraction.

  • Define heart rate.

    Heart rate is the number of heartbeats per minute.

  • What factors affect stroke volume?

    Factors include preload (end-diastolic volume), contractility, and afterload (resistance).

  • What factors affect heart rate?

    Heart rate is influenced by autonomic nervous system input, hormones, temperature, and fitness level.

  • Define end-diastolic volume (EDV).

    EDV is the volume of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole, before contraction.

  • Define ejection fraction.

    Ejection fraction is the percentage of EDV ejected during systole, calculated as stroke volume divided by EDV.

  • Describe the baroreceptor reflex.

    The baroreceptor reflex helps regulate blood pressure by adjusting heart rate and vessel diameter in response to pressure changes.

  • What is peripheral resistance and how does it affect blood pressure?

    Peripheral resistance is the resistance to blood flow in vessels; increased resistance raises blood pressure.

  • Define total peripheral resistance (TPR).

    TPR is the overall resistance to blood flow offered by all systemic blood vessels.

  • Define venous return.

    Venous return is the volume of blood returning to the heart via the veins.

  • List factors that affect venous return.

    Factors include skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump, venous valves, and blood volume.

  • How is total blood volume most easily changed?

    Total blood volume is most easily changed by adjusting fluid intake and renal function.

  • Describe Starling’s law of the capillaries.

    Starling’s law describes fluid exchange across capillaries based on hydrostatic and osmotic pressure differences.

  • How is blood pressure measured?

    Blood pressure is measured using a sphygmomanometer and listening for Korotkoff sounds during cuff deflation.

  • Define Korotkoff sounds.

    Korotkoff sounds are the sounds heard when blood flow resumes in an artery during blood pressure measurement.

  • Define systolic blood pressure.

    Systolic pressure is the pressure in arteries during ventricular contraction.

  • Define diastolic blood pressure.

    Diastolic pressure is the pressure in arteries during ventricular relaxation.

  • Define mean arterial pressure (MAP).

    MAP is the average arterial pressure during one cardiac cycle, important for tissue perfusion.

  • Define pulse pressure.

    Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure.

  • Define venous pressure.

    Venous pressure is the blood pressure within the venous system, generally lower than arterial pressure.