Chapter 1-5

Tissues are groups of cells that work together to perform a specialized function, like skin or arteries.

A cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function for life, or the smallest individual unit of an organism.

Organelles are functional components of cells. Ex chloroplast or mitochondria or nucleus.

A molecule is a chemical structure consisting of two or more atoms.

New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.

An approach to studying biology that aims to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems based on a study of the interactions among the system’s parts.

A A type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. Organisms with eukaryotic cells (protists, plants, fungi, and animals) are called eukaryotes.

A type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. Organisms with prokaryotic cells (bacteria and archaea) are called prokaryotes.

deoxyribonucleic acid is a long molecule used to transmit genetic information during cell division.

Nucleotides, A,T,C, and G

The entire process by which information in a gene directs the manufacture of a cellular product.

Transcription, Translation, and Protein folding. Using DNA information, the cell makes (transcribes) mRNA. The cell translates the mRNA to make a protein, a series of linked amino acids. The chain of amino acids folds into a specific shape of some protein.

The entire "library" of genetic instructions that an organism inherits. A typical human cell has two similar sets of chromosomes, and each set has approximately 3 billion nucleotide pairs of DNA. The researchers who study it study genomics.

The study of sets of proteins and their properties. (The entire set of proteins expressed by a given cell, tissue, or organism is called a proteome.)

The use of computers, software, and mathematical models to process and integrate biological information from large data sets.

Producers are organisms that absorb sunlight or get their nutrients from the ambient planet. Consumers are organisms that feed on other organisms or their remains.

The regulation of a process by its output or end product.

A process of biological change in which species accumulate differences from their ancestors as they adapt to different environments over time.

Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

Humans are in domain Eukarya.

Plantae, Fungi, Animalia, Protists

A mechanism of evolutionary adaptation that occurs because the natural environment consistently selects for the propagation of certain traits among naturally occurring variant traits in the population.

An observational item of information that isn't numerical. Blue feathers.

Numerical items of information.

A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations.

A hypothesis is an explanation, based on observations and assumptions, that leads to a testable prediction. Said another way, a hypothesis is an explanation on trial.

No, it can only be falsified.

An experiment is a scientific test, carried out under controlled conditions.

A type of logic in which specific results are predicted from a general premise. Ex: If the burnt-out bulb hypothesis is correct, then the lamp should work if you replace the bulb with a new one.

An experiment designed to compare an experimental group with a control group; ideally, the two groups differ only in the factor being tested.

A feature or quantity that varies in an experiment. The independent variable is the factor being manipulated by the researchers. The dependent variable is the factor being measured that is predicted to be affected by the independent variable.

The use of control groups can cancel out the effects of unwanted variables in an experiment.

An explanation that is broader in scope than a hypothesis, generates new hypotheses, and is supported by a large body of evidence.

A species that is easy to grow in the lab and lends itself particularly well to the questions being investigated.

the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, the mouse Mus musculus,

Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.

An element is any substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance.

A compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio.

Table salt, for example, is sodium chloride (NaCl), a compound composed of the elements sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) in a 1:1 ratio

An element that is essential for all life to be healthy and reproduce.

Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen

Trace elements are required by an organism in only minute quantities.

Calcium, Potassium, Iron, Phosphorous, Sulfur, Cobalt, Zinc, Magnesium, Iodine, Manganese,

An atom is the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element.

Positive, neutral, and negative.

The atomic number is the number of protons, which is unique to that element.

The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

An element with a varied amount of neutrons.

A radioactive isotope is one in which the nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy.

The amount of time it takes for 50 percent of a sample of a radioactive isotope to decay.

A method for determining the absolute age of rocks and fossils, based on the half-life of radioactive isotopes.

The capacity to cause change, especially to do work (to move matter against an opposing force).

Potential energy is the energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure.

An electron in the outermost electron shell.

The outermost energy shell of an atom, containing the valence electrons involved in the chemical reactions of that atom.

An attraction between two atoms, resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atoms. The bonded atoms gain complete outer electron shells.

Covalent and Ionic.

More specifically, Polar covalent, Nonpolar covalent, Single bond, Double bond, Triple bond, Ionic.

A covalent bond between atoms that differ in electronegativity.

A bond in which electrons are shared equally between two atoms.

The shared electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom, making it slightly negative and the other atom slightly positive.

The bonding capacity of a given atom; the number of covalent bonds that an atom can form, which usually equals the number of unpaired electrons in its outermost (valence) shell.

A single covalent bond; the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms.

A double covalent bond; the sharing of two pairs of valence electrons by two atoms.

The same but three.

A type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons.

A chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Ionic bonds don't share, covalent bonds do

Ions are positively or negatively charged atoms. Cations are positively charged and missing electrons, Anions are negatively charged and have extra electrons.

Ionic compounds formed by ionic bonds or by a bond between a cation and anion.

A type of weak chemical bond that is formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule or in another region of the same molecule.

Usually oxygen or nitrogen atoms.

Weak attractions between molecules or parts of molecules that result from transient local partial charges.

Meniscus on a glass of water. Van der Waals interactions allow the gecko lizard shown here to walk straight up a wall!

The making and breaking of chemical bonds, leading to changes in the composition of matter.

Rusting Iron is a chemical reaction.

Reactants and products. The starting point and ending point.

In a chemical reaction, the state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction, so that the relative concentrations of the reactants and products do not change with time.

Cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon freezing, and versatility as a solvent.

The ability of hydrogen bonds to make a sample of water more structured than most liquids.

Strong surface tension is a result of cohesion, allowing some small animals to 'walk' on water.

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.

Thermal energy is associated with the random movement of molecules and accounts for the total kinetic energy of a system.

Thermal energy is related to the total kinetic energy of a body and temperature is related to the average kinetic energy.

Thermal energy in transfer from one body of matter to another is defined as heat.

A calorie is the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of  1 g of water by 1°C.

A kilocalorie (kcal), 1,000 cal, is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram (kg) of water by 1°C.

Another energy unit, joule (J). One joule equals 0.239 cal.

Specific heat can be thought of as a measure of how well a substance resists changing its temperature when it absorbs or releases heat.

The quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state.

As a liquid evaporates, the surface of the liquid that remains behind cools down (its temperature decreases).

A liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is called a solution.

The dissolving agent of a solution is the solvent, and the substance that is dissolved is the solute.

An aqueous solution is one in which the solute is dissolved in water; water is the solvent.

The sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion is called a hydration shell.

Any substance that has an affinity for water is said to be hydrophilic

Substances that are nonionic and nonpolar (or otherwise cannot form hydrogen bonds) actually seem to repel water; these substances are said to be hydrophobic

Molarity—the number of moles of solute per liter of solution—is the unit of concentration most often used by biologists for aqueous solutions.

Compounds containing carbon are said to be organic, and their study is called organic chemistry

Compounds consisting of only Carbon and Hydrogen.

One of two or more compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties.

Structural isomers differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.

Cis-trans isomers differ in arrangement about a double bond. Sometimes they are across a horizontal line or sometimes they are across a diagonal line.

Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon, one that is attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms. Like rightt and left hands.

A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions.

hydroxyl group, carbonyl group, carboxyl group, amino group, sulfhydryl group, phosphate group, and methyl group.

-OH

Alcohol

Hydroxyl is polar and makes compounds more soluble in water.

>CO

Aldehyde or ketone

Sugars with ketone groups are called ketoses.

-COOH

Carboxylic acid

Acts as an acid that can donate H+ because the covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar.

-NH2

Amine

Acts as a base and can pick up H+ from surrounding solutions.

-SH

Thiol

Forms disulfide bonds, and can help stabilize protein structures.

-OPO3 2-

Organic phosphate.

contributes negative charge (1- when inside a chain of phosphates or 2- at the end of a chain) When attached, confers on a molecule the ability to react with water, releasing energy.

-CH3

Methylated compound

Affects the expression of genes when bonded to DNA or to proteins that bind to DNA. Affects the shape and function of sex hormones.

Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Nucleic acids.

Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Nucleic acids.

A molecule made up of long chains of polymers.

A polymer is a chain of similar or identical monomers linked by covalent bonds.

Monomers are the individual molecules that serve as the building block for polymers. They can have functions of their own.

A specialized macromolecule (usually a protein) that can be used to speed up a chemical reaction.

Condensation reactions occur when a monomer connects to another monomer by losing another small molecule. If the reaction loses a water molecule it is called a dehydration reaction.

Carbohydrate and protein polymers are synthesized by dehydration reactions. "You're dehydrating the monomers."

The process by which water is added to a polymer chain to "break off" a monomer from the polymer. Water is split into hydroxyl group and hydrogen ion to make the split. You're "hydrating the monomers." Hydrolysis disassembles.

Sugars and polymers of sugars. They are used for energy and building materials.

A polysaccharide that is used to build cell walls in plants.

Starch is a polysaccharide used to store sugar in plants, glycogen is the polysaccharide used to store sugar in animals.

They are all hydrophobic.

Fats are triglycerides that have three long and varying lengths tails of carbon and hydrogen. They can be saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature, US fats are liquid at room temp. US fats have a double bond of carbon in their tails that stops them from closely stacking

Glycerol is a carbon based alcohol with hydroxyl groups on each carbon.

Fatty acids are joined to glycerol by a carboxyl functional group by dehydration reaction.

The tails of fats (C and H) are relatively nonpolar, so when they are in aqueous solution, the water bonds to itself via hydrogen bonds, but not to the fats. Thus the water "pushes out" the fats by bonding to itself.

A link between a hydroxyl group (OH-) and a carboxyl group (COOH) created by dehydration reaction. The result is O-C=O where C has one more potential bond.

Ester links hold together the glycerol carbons and fatty acid tails.