Three-spined stickleback fish live in lakes formed when the last ice age ended 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. In lakes where the sticklebacks are prey for larger fish, they develop 35 bony plates along their body as armor. In contrast, sticklebacks in lakes where there are no predators develop only a few or no bony plates. Loss-of-function mutations in the coding region of the homologous gene in humans result in loss of hair, teeth, and sweat glands, as in the toothless men of Sind (India). What does this suggest about hair, teeth, and sweat glands in humans?

In Arabidopsis, flower development is controlled by sets of homeotic genes. How many classes of these genes are there, and what structures are formed by their individual and combined expression?

The Hoxd9–13 genes are thought to specify digit identity. You wish to examine the effect of loss-of-function alleles in developing limbs. How would you construct a mouse in which the function of Hoxd9–13 is retained during anterior–posterior embryonic patterning but is absent from developing limbs?

The Hoxd9–13 genes are thought to specify digit identity. What would be the consequence of ectopically expressing Hoxd10 throughout the developing mouse limb bud? What about Hoxd11? What about both Hoxd10 and Hoxd11?

The floral homeotic genes of Arabidopsis belong to the MADS-box gene family, while in Drosophila, homeotic genes belong to the homeobox gene family. In both Arabidopsis and Drosophila, members of the Polycomb gene family control expression of these divergent homeotic genes. How do Polycomb genes control expression of two very different sets of homeotic genes?

Three-spined stickleback fish live in lakes formed when the last ice age ended 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. In lakes where the sticklebacks are prey for larger fish, they develop 35 bony plates along their body as armor. In contrast, sticklebacks in lakes where there are no predators develop only a few or no bony plates. In crosses between fish of the two different morphologies, the lack of bony armor segregates as a recessive trait that maps to the ectodermal dysplasin (Eda) gene. Comparisons between the Eda-coding regions of the armored and nonarmored fish revealed no differences. How can you explain this result?

Vulval development in C. elegans is dependent on the response of some of the central epidermal progenitor cells in the region of the developing vulva to a chemical signal from the gonad. Signaling from the gonad is blocked by action of the vulvaless mutant let-23 so that none of the central progenitor cells form vulval structures. In the vulvaless mutant, n300, the central progenitor cells do not form.

What phenotype (vulva formed or vulvaless) would you expect from the double mutant? Why?

Vulval development in C. elegans is dependent on the response of some of the central epidermal progenitor cells in the region of the developing vulva to a chemical signal from the gonad. Signaling from the gonad is blocked by action of the vulvaless mutant let-23 so that none of the central progenitor cells form vulval structures. In the vulvaless mutant, n300, the central progenitor cells do not form.

Which gene is likely to act earlier in the vulval developmental pathway?

The flowering jungle plant Lacandonia schismatica, discovered in southern Mexico, has a unique floral structure. Petal-like organs are in the outer whorls surrounding a number of carpels, and stamens are in the center of the flower. Closely related species are dioecious; female plants bear flowers that resemble those of Lacandonia, but without the central stamens. What type of mutation could have resulted in the evolution of Lacandonia flowers?