Dipterans (two-winged insects) are thought to have evolved from a four-winged ancestor that had wings on both T2 and T3 thoracic segments, as in extant butterflies and dragonflies. Describe an evolutionary scenario for the evolution of dipterans from four-winged ancestors. What types of mutations could lead to a butterfly developing with only two wings?

Early development depends on the temporal and spatial interplay between maternally supplied material and mRNA and the onset of zygotic gene expression. Maternally encoded mRNAs must be produced, positioned, and degraded [Surdej and Jacobs-Lorena (1998). Mol. Cell Biol. 18:2892–2900]. For example, transcription of the bicoid gene that determines anterior–posterior polarity in Drosophila is maternal. The mRNA is synthesized in the ovary by nurse cells and then transported to the oocyte, where it localizes to the anterior ends of oocytes. After egg deposition, bicoid mRNA is translated and unstable bicoid protein forms a decreasing concentration gradient from the anterior end of the embryo. At the start of gastrulation, bicoid mRNA has been degraded. Consider two models to explain the degradation of bicoid mRNA: (1) degradation may result from signals within the mRNA (intrinsic model), or (2) degradation may result from the mRNA's position within the egg (extrinsic model). Experimentally, how could one distinguish between these two models?

Formation of germ cells in Drosophila and many other embryos is dependent on their position in the embryo and their exposure to localized cytoplasmic determinants. Nuclei exposed to cytoplasm in the posterior end of Drosophila eggs (the pole plasm) form cells that develop into germ cells under the direction of maternally derived components. R. Amikura et al. [(2001). Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (USA) 98:9133–9138] consistently found mitochondria-type ribosomes outside mitochondria in the germ plasma of Drosophila embryos and postulated that they are intimately related to germ-cell specification. If you were studying this phenomenon, what would you want to know about the activity of these ribosomes?

The maternal-effect mutation bicoid (bcd) is recessive. In the absence of the bicoid protein product, embryogenesis is not completed. Consider a cross between a female heterozygous for the bicoid alleles (bcd⁺/bcd⁻) and a male homozygous for the mutation (bcd⁻/bcd⁻).

Predict the outcome (normal vs. failed embryogenesis) in the F₁ and F₂ generations of the cross described.

The maternal-effect mutation bicoid (bcd) is recessive. In the absence of the bicoid protein product, embryogenesis is not completed. Consider a cross between a female heterozygous for the bicoid alleles (bcd⁺/bcd⁻) and a male homozygous for the mutation (bcd⁻/bcd⁻).

How is it possible for a male homozygous for the mutation to exist?

In Drosophila, loss-of-function Ultrabithorax mutations result in the posterior thoracic segments differentiating into body parts with an identity normally found in the anterior thoracic segments. When the Ultrabithorax gene was cloned, it was shown to encode a transcription factor and to be expressed only in the posterior region of the thorax. Thus, Ultrabithorax acts to specify the identity of the posterior thoracic segments. Similar genes were soon discovered in other animals, including mice and humans. You have found that mice possess two closely related genes, Hoxa7 and Hoxb4, which are orthologs of Ultrabithorax. You wish to know whether the two mouse genes act to specify the identity of body segments in mice.

How will you create loss-of-function alleles of the mouse genes?

Which of the following is not a germ layer formed during gastrulation?

Which of the following characteristics describes the blastoderm embryonic tissue?

Gastrulation occurs after segmentation