Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology Lab

Lab Safety and Procedures

• Lab Safety: Learn and practice lab safety procedures and rules to ensure a safe working environment.

• Lab Acknowledgement: Complete and submit the Laboratory Safety and Acknowledgement Sheet before beginning lab work.

Anatomical Terminology

Surface Anatomy Terms

Surface anatomy terms are used to describe specific regions and landmarks on the human body.

• Cephalic: Head

• Frontal: Forehead

• Orbital: Eye

• Nasal: Nose

• Buccal: Cheek

• Oral: Mouth

• Mental: Chin

• Cervical: Neck

• Thoracic: Chest

• Brachial: Arm

• Axillary: Armpit

• Abdominal: Abdomen

• Pelvic: Pelvis

• Inguinal: Groin

• Pubic: Genital region

• Antebrachial: Forearm

• Olecranal: Back of elbow

• Carpal: Wrist

• Manus: Hand

• Pollex: Thumb

• Patellar: Kneecap

• Plantar: Sole of foot

• Hallux: Great toe

• Occipital: Back of head

• Scapular: Shoulder blade

• Vertebral: Spine

• Lumbar: Lower back

• Sacral: Area between hips

• Gluteal: Buttock

• Perineal: Region between anus and genitals

Anatomical Position and Orientation

The anatomical position is a standard reference for describing locations and directions on the body.

• Anatomical Position: Body standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward.

• Orientation/Direction Terms:

  • Superior/Inferior: Above/below

  • Ventral/Dorsal: Front/back

  • Medial/Lateral: Toward/away from midline

  • Intermediate: Between two structures

  • Proximal/Distal: Nearer/farther from point of attachment

  • Superficial/Deep: Toward/away from body surface

Body Planes and Sections

Body planes are imaginary lines used to divide the body for anatomical study.

• Frontal (coronal) plane: Divides body into anterior and posterior parts

• Sagittal plane: Divides body into right and left parts

• Transverse plane: Divides body into superior and inferior parts

• Oblique plane: Cuts at an angle

Body Cavities

Body cavities house and protect internal organs.

• Dorsal body cavity: Contains cranial and vertebral cavities

• Ventral body cavity: Contains thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

• Thoracic cavity: Contains heart and lungs

• Pericardial cavity: Contains heart

• Abdominopelvic cavity: Contains digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

The abdominopelvic cavity is divided for clinical and anatomical reference.

• Quadrants:

  • Right upper quadrant

  • Left upper quadrant

  • Right lower quadrant

  • Left lower quadrant

• Regions:

  • Right hypochondriac

  • Epigastric

  • Left hypochondriac

  • Right lumbar

  • Umbilical

  • Left lumbar

  • Right iliac (inguinal)

  • Hypogastric (pubic)

  • Left iliac (inguinal)

Organ Systems Overview

Major Human Organ Systems and Organs

Each organ system consists of specific organs that perform related functions.

• Thymus

• Heart

• Lungs

• Trachea

• Esophagus

• Diaphragm

• Liver

• Gallbladder

• Stomach

• Pericardium

• Small intestine

• Large intestine

• Cecum

• Rectum

• Mesentery

• Pancreas

• Spleen

• Kidney

• Ureter

• Urinary bladder

• Inferior vena cava

• Abdominal aorta

• Testis

• Uterus (uterine horn)

• Ovary

Microscopy and Cell Structure

The Microscope

Microscopes are essential tools for studying cells and tissues.

• Parts of the Microscope: Each part has a specific function, such as focusing, magnifying, or illuminating the specimen.

• Proper Technique: Includes correct focusing and handling to avoid damage.

• Calculations:

  • Total Magnification:

  • Working Distance: Distance between lens and specimen

  • Field Size: Diameter of the visible area

  • Object Size: Actual size of the specimen

Cell Model Structures

Cells contain various organelles, each with a specific function.

• Plasma membrane

• Mitochondrion

• Ribosome

• Golgi apparatus

• Smooth/Rough endoplasmic reticulum

• Lysosome

• Centrioles

• Vacuole

• Nucleus

• Nucleolus

• Chromatin

• Nuclear envelope

Cell Division: Mitosis

Mitosis is the process by which cells divide to produce identical daughter cells.

• Prophase: Chromosomes condense, spindle forms

• Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the center

• Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate

• Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform

Histology: Epithelial and Connective Tissues

Classification of Epithelial Tissues

Epithelial tissues are classified by cell shape and number of layers.

• Simple squamous epithelium: Single layer, flat cells

• Simple cuboidal epithelium: Single layer, cube-shaped cells

• Simple columnar epithelium: Single layer, tall cells

• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium: Appears layered, but all cells touch basement membrane

• Stratified squamous epithelium: Multiple layers, flat cells

• Transitional epithelium: Multiple layers, can stretch

Classification of Connective Tissues

Connective tissues support, bind, and protect organs.

• Areolar connective tissue

• Adipose connective tissue

• Dense regular (white fibrous) connective tissue

• Bone connective tissue

• Blood connective tissue

• Fibrocartilage connective tissue

The Integumentary System

Skin Model Structures

The skin is composed of multiple layers and associated structures.

• Epidermis

• Dermis

• Hair shaft, root, follicle

• Arrector pili muscle

• Dermal papillae

• Tactile (Meissner's) corpuscle

• Lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscle

• Eccrine sweat gland

• Pore

• Vein, artery, lymph vessel

• Adipose tissue

• Sebaceous gland

Epidermal Layers

• Stratum corneum

• Stratum lucidum

• Stratum granulosum

• Stratum spinosum

• Stratum basale

Microscopic Skin Structures

• Central canal

• Lamella

• Canaliculus

• Lacuna

Overview of the Skeleton: Bones and Cartilages

Classification and Structure of Bones

Bones are classified by shape and location, and have specific landmarks for identification.

• Cranial Bones: Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid

• Facial Bones: Mandible, maxillary, palatine, zygomatic, lacrimal, nasal, vomer, inferior nasal concha

• Hyoid Bone

• Vertebral Column: Cervical (atlas, axis), thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx

• Thorax: Sternum, ribs (true, false, floating)

• Shoulder (Pectoral) Girdle: Clavicle, scapula

• Arm: Humerus

• Forearm: Ulna, radius

• Hand: Carpals, metacarpals, phalanges

• Pelvic Girdle: Coxal bone (ilium, ischium, pubis)

• Thigh: Femur

• Leg: Tibia, fibula

• Ankle and Foot: Tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges

Bone Landmarks

Landmarks are specific features on bones used for identification and attachment.

Pelvic Differences

• Male pelvis: Narrower, deeper, more robust

• Female pelvis: Wider, shallower, adapted for childbirth

Articulations and Body Movements

Classification of Joints

Joints are classified by structure and function.

• Fibrous joints: Joined by fibrous tissue, no joint cavity (e.g., suture in skull, syndesmosis between tibia and fibula, gomphosis in teeth)

• Cartilaginous joints: Joined by cartilage, no joint cavity (e.g., symphysis, synchondrosis)

• Synovial joints: Freely movable, joint cavity present (e.g., hinge, pivot, condyloid, ball and socket, saddle)

Body Movements

• Flexion/Extension: Decreasing/increasing angle between bones

• Abduction/Adduction: Moving limb away/toward midline

• Rotation: Turning bone around its axis

• Circumduction: Circular movement of limb

Summary Table: Major Lab Topics

Additional info: This guide expands on the original lab manual outline, providing definitions, examples, and context for each topic to support exam preparation and practical lab work.