Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology Lab

Lab Safety and Procedures

• Lab safety is essential for preventing accidents and ensuring a productive learning environment.

• Students must learn and practice lab safety rules, including proper handling of equipment and specimens.

• Completion of the Laboratory Safety and Acknowledgement Sheet is required.

Anatomical Terminology

Surface Anatomy Terms

Surface anatomy terms are used to describe specific regions of the body for clear communication in clinical and academic settings.

• Cephalic (head), Orbital (eye), Nasal (nose), Buccal (cheek), Mental (chin), Cervical (neck), Thoracic (chest), Abdominal (abdomen), Brachial (arm), Axillary (armpit), Antebrachial (forearm), Carpal (wrist), Palmar (palm), Pollex (thumb), Patellar (kneecap), Plantar (sole), Hallux (big toe), Occipital (back of head), Scapular (shoulder blade), Lumbar (lower back), Gluteal (buttock), Femoral (thigh), Crural (leg), Calcaneal (heel), Perineal (between anus and genitals)

Anatomical Position and Orientation

The anatomical position is the standard reference for describing locations and directions on the human body.

• Anatomical position: Body standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward.

• Orientation/direction terms:

  • Superior/Inferior – above/below

  • Ventral/Dorsal – front/back

  • Medial/Lateral – toward/away from midline

  • Intermediate – between two structures

  • Proximal/Distal – closer/farther from origin

  • Superficial/Deep – toward/away from the body surface

Body Planes and Sections

Body planes are imaginary lines used to divide the body for anatomical study.

• Frontal (coronal) plane: Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

• Sagittal plane: Divides the body into right and left parts.

• Transverse plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior parts.

• Oblique plane: Cuts at an angle.

Body Cavities

Body cavities house and protect internal organs.

• Dorsal body cavity: Contains cranial and vertebral cavities.

• Ventral body cavity: Contains thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

• Thoracic cavity: Contains the heart and lungs.

• Abdominopelvic cavity: Contains digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs.

• Pericardial cavity: Contains the heart.

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

The abdominopelvic cavity is divided for clinical and anatomical reference.

• Quadrants: Right upper, left upper, right lower, left lower.

• Regions: Right/left hypochondriac, epigastric, right/left lumbar, umbilical, right/left iliac (inguinal), hypogastric (pubic).

Organ Systems Overview

Major Human Organ Systems

Each organ system has specific functions and major organs that serve distinct purposes.

• Examples: Thymus, heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus, diaphragm, liver, gallbladder, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, cecum, rectum, mesentery, pancreas, spleen, kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, inferior vena cava, abdominal aorta, testis, uterus, ovary.

Microscopy and Cell Structure

The Microscope

Microscopes are essential tools for studying cells and tissues.

• Parts include ocular lens, objective lens, stage, coarse/fine focus, and light source.

• Total magnification: Product of ocular and objective lens powers.

• Working distance: Space between lens and specimen.

• Field size: Area visible under the microscope.

• Object size: Actual size of specimen viewed.

Formula for total magnification:

Cell Model Structures

Cells contain various organelles, each with its own specific function.

• Plasma membrane: Outer boundary, regulates entry/exit.

• Mitochondrion: Site of ATP production.

• Ribosome: Protein synthesis.

• Lysosome: Digestion of cellular waste.

• Golgi apparatus: Packaging and transport of proteins.

• Centrioles: Cell division.

• Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth/rough): Lipid synthesis/protein synthesis.

• Vacuole: Storage.

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material.

• Chromatin: DNA and proteins.

• Nuclear envelope: Surrounds the nucleus.

Cell Division: Mitosis

Mitosis is the process by which cells divide to produce identical daughter cells.

• Prophase: Chromosomes condense, spindle forms.

• Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell equator.

• Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate.

• Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform.

Histology: Epithelial and Connective Tissues

Classification of Epithelial Tissues

Epithelial tissues cover surfaces and line cavities.

• Simple squamous epithelium: Single layer, flat cells; found in alveoli.

• Simple cuboidal epithelium: Single layer, cube-shaped; found in kidney tubules.

• Simple columnar epithelium: Single layer, tall cells; found in digestive tract.

• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium: Appears layered, but all cells touch basement membrane; found in trachea.

• Stratified squamous epithelium: Multiple layers, flat cells; found in skin.

• Transitional epithelium: Stretches; found in urinary bladder.

Classification of Connective Tissues

Connective tissues support, bind, and protect organs.

• Areolar connective tissue: Loose, supports organs.

• Adipose connective tissue: Stores fat.

• Dense regular (white fibrous) CT: Tendons, ligaments.

• Bone connective tissue: Rigid support.

• Blood connective tissue: Transports substances.

• Fibrocartilage connective tissue: Intervertebral discs.

Integumentary System

Skin Structures and Layers

The skin protects the body and regulates temperature.

• Epidermis: Outer layer.

• Dermis: Middle layer.

• Hair shaft, root, follicle: Hair structures.

• Arrector pili muscle: Causes hair to stand.

• Dermal papillae: Fingerprints.

• Glands: Sebaceous (oil), sweat (eccrine).

• Corpuscles: Lamellar (Pacinian) for pressure, Meissner for touch.

Epidermal Layers

• Stratum corneum: Outermost, dead cells.

• Stratum lucidum: Only in thick skin.

• Stratum granulosum: Granular cells.

• Stratum spinosum: Spiny cells.

• Stratum basale: Deepest, mitotic cells.

Skeletal System: Bones and Landmarks

Cranial and Facial Bones

The skull protects the brain and forms the face.

Vertebral Column

Thorax and Shoulder Girdle

Arm and Forearm

Hand

• Carpals: Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate

• Metacarpals

• Phalanges (proximal, middle, distal)

Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

Articulations and Body Movements

Classification of Joints

Joints are classified by structure and function.

• Fibrous joints: Joined by fibrous tissue, no joint cavity (e.g., suture in skull, syndesmosis between tibia and fibula, gomphosis in teeth).

• Cartilaginous joints: Joined by cartilage, no joint cavity (e.g., symphysis in pubic symphysis, synchondrosis in first rib and sternum).

• Synovial joints: Freely movable, joint cavity present.

Types of Synovial Joints and Examples

Summary

• This guide covers foundational anatomical terminology, organ systems, microscopy, cell structure, histology, integumentary system, skeletal system, and articulations.

• Students should be able to identify and describe anatomical structures, tissue types, bones, landmarks, and joint classifications for lab practical exams.