Chapter 3: Periodic Properties of the Elements

Ionization Energy

Ionization energy is a fundamental property of atoms that reflects how strongly an atom holds onto its electrons.

• Definition: Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion.

• Sequential Ionization Energies: The first ionization energy removes the first electron; the second ionization energy removes the next, and so on. Each successive ionization energy is higher than the previous due to increased effective nuclear charge.

• Trends: Ionization energies increase across a period (left to right) and decrease down a group (top to bottom) in the periodic table.

• Identifying Cation Charges: Large jumps in successive ionization energies indicate removal of electrons from a new shell, helping to identify the typical charge of cations.

• Example: The first and second ionization energies of magnesium are relatively low, but the third is much higher, indicating Mg forms a Mg2+ ion.

Chapter 4: Molecules and Compounds

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonds are the forces holding atoms together in compounds. The main types are ionic and covalent bonds.

• Ionic Bonds: Formed between metals and nonmetals; electrons are transferred from metal to nonmetal.

• Covalent Bonds: Formed between nonmetals; electrons are shared between atoms.

• Comparison: Ionic compounds are usually crystalline solids with high melting points; covalent compounds can be gases, liquids, or solids with lower melting points.

• Example: NaCl (ionic), H2O (covalent).

Chemical Representations

Chemists use various representations to describe molecules and compounds.

• Chemical Formula: Shows the types and numbers of atoms (e.g., H2O).

• Structural Formula: Shows how atoms are connected (e.g., O-H-H).

• Ball & Stick/Space-Filling Models: 3D representations of molecular geometry.

• Line Structures: Used especially for organic molecules; lines represent bonds, vertices represent carbon atoms.

Bond Energies and Coulomb's Law

Ionic bonds lower the energy of the system by electrostatic attraction, described by Coulomb's Law.

• Coulomb's Law:

• Ion Pairs: The energy is minimized when oppositely charged ions are close together.

• Covalent Bonds: Lower energy by sharing electrons, increasing electron density between nuclei.

• Bond Formation: Exothermic process; energy is released when bonds form.

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Lewis symbols represent valence electrons and help predict bonding.

• Lewis Symbols: Dots around element symbols represent valence electrons.

• Octet Rule: Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve eight valence electrons.

• Application: Helps determine formulas of ionic compounds and number of bonds in covalent compounds.

Nomenclature of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Systematic naming is essential for clear communication in chemistry.

• Ionic Compounds: Name cation first, then anion. Use Roman numerals for transition metals to indicate charge.

• Common Polyatomic Ions:

  Ion	Formula	Charge
  Ammonium	NH4+	+1
  Hydroxide	OH-	-1
  Carbonate	CO32-	-2
  Hydrogen carbonate	HCO3-	-1
  Nitrate	NO3-	-1
  Sulfate	SO42-	-2
  Phosphate	PO43-	-3

• Covalent Compounds: Use prefixes to indicate number of atoms (e.g., CO2: carbon dioxide).

• Formula to Name and Name to Formula: Be able to convert between the two for both compound types.

Bonding Definitions

• Lone-Pair Electrons: Electrons not involved in bonding.

• Single, Double, Triple Bonds: One, two, or three pairs of electrons shared between atoms.

• Valence: Number of bonds an element typically forms (C: 4, N: 3, O: 2, F: 1).

Molar Mass and Percent Composition

Molar mass is used to relate mass and moles, and to determine percent composition.

• Molar Mass: Sum of atomic masses in a compound (g/mol).

• Conversion:

• Percent Composition:

• Empirical Formula: Simplest ratio of elements, determined from mass percent.

• Molecular Formula: Actual formula, determined from empirical formula and molar mass.

Chapter 5: Chemical Bonding I

Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a bond.

• Definition: Electronegativity increases across a period and decreases down a group.

• Polar Covalent Bonds: Occur when atoms have different electronegativities; electrons are shared unequally.

• Polarity Designation: The more electronegative atom is marked with δ–, the less with δ+.

• Example: In HCl, Cl is δ–, H is δ+.

Electron Distribution and Electrostatic Potential Maps

• Electrostatic Potential Maps: Visualize electron density and polarity; colors indicate regions of partial positive and negative charge.

Lewis Structures and Resonance

Lewis structures show how atoms are bonded and where electrons are located.

• Drawing Lewis Structures: Include all valence electrons; some molecules do not obey the octet rule.

• Resonance: Some molecules have multiple valid Lewis structures; actual structure is a hybrid.

• Example: Ozone (O3) absorbs UV-B radiation due to resonance, unlike O2.

Formal Charge

• Definition: Formal charge is the charge assigned to an atom in a molecule, calculated as:

• Stability: The most stable Lewis structure has formal charges closest to zero.

VSEPR Theory and Molecular Shape

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory predicts molecular shapes based on repulsion between electron pairs.

• Repelling: Both bonding pairs and lone pairs repel each other.

• Shape Measurement: Only nuclei are considered; lone pairs affect shape but are not counted in measurements.

• Bond Angles: Lone pairs and multiple bonds occupy more space, reducing bond angles.

• Identifying Shapes: Use Lewis structure and VSEPR to determine geometry (e.g., linear, bent, trigonal planar, tetrahedral).

• Polarity: Combine shape and bond polarities to determine if a molecule is polar.

Bond Energy and Bond Length

• Bond Energy: Energy required to break a bond; higher for multiple bonds.

• Bond Length: Distance between nuclei; shorter for multiple bonds.

• Estimating Reaction Energy: Use tabulated bond energies:

Energy Carrier

• Definition: An energy carrier is a molecule or ion that stores and transfers energy within chemical systems (e.g., ATP in biology).

Chapter 6: Chemical Bonding II

Wave Interference and Valence Bond Theory

Valence bond theory explains chemical bonding as the overlap of atomic orbitals.

• Constructive Interference: Overlapping orbitals increase electron density between nuclei, forming a bond.

• Destructive Interference: Overlapping out of phase creates nodes, preventing bonding.

Hybrid Orbitals

• Need for Hybridization: Atomic orbitals must adapt shape to allow proper bonding geometry.

• Formation: s and p orbitals combine to form hybrid orbitals.

• Types and Shapes:

  • sp: linear

  • sp2: trigonal planar

  • sp3: tetrahedral

• Determining Hybridization: Use Lewis structure to identify hybrid orbitals, especially for carbon atoms.

• Unhybridized p Orbitals: Remain available for pi bonding.

Sigma and Pi Bonds

• Sigma (σ) Bonds: Formed by head-on overlap; all single bonds are sigma bonds.

• Pi (π) Bonds: Formed by side-on overlap of p orbitals; present in double and triple bonds.

• Identification: Sigma bonds are cylindrical; pi bonds have electron density above and below the bond axis.

Cis- and Trans- Isomers

• Definition: Isomers with same formula but different arrangement around a double bond.

• Cis Isomer: Substituents on same side.

• Trans Isomer: Substituents on opposite sides.

• Role in Vision: Cis-trans isomerization is key in the chemistry of vision (e.g., retinal molecule).

Molecular Orbital Theory

Molecular orbital (MO) theory describes bonding as the combination of atomic orbitals to form molecular orbitals.

• Overlap: Two atomic orbitals combine to form two molecular orbitals: one bonding, one antibonding.

• Bonding Orbital: Lower energy; electron density between nuclei.

• Antibonding Orbital: Higher energy; node between nuclei.

• Energy Diagram: Shows relative energies of atomic and molecular orbitals (see textbook figures).

• Stability: H2 is stable because electrons fill the bonding orbital; He2 is not stable because both bonding and antibonding orbitals are filled, resulting in no net bond.

Constants and Periodic Table

Fundamental Constants

• Avogadro's Number:

• Planck's Constant:

• Speed of Light:

Periodic Table

The periodic table organizes elements by increasing atomic number and groups elements with similar properties.

• Groups: Columns; elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.

• Periods: Rows; properties change progressively across a period.

• Common Charges: Group 1: +1, Group 2: +2, Group 13: +3, Group 16: -2, Group 17: -1.

Additional info: Some content (e.g., line structures, energy carrier, and specific lecture graphs) was inferred and expanded for completeness.