14.1 Factors Affecting Fertility

A. Male Fertility: Healthy Sperm

Male fertility is influenced by several lifestyle and nutritional factors that affect sperm health and reproductive outcomes.

• Stop smoking: Smoking can reduce sperm count and motility.

• Avoid excessive alcohol use: Alcohol can impair sperm production and function.

• Achieve/maintain healthy body weight: Both underweight and overweight status can negatively impact fertility.

• Control chronic health issues: Conditions like diabetes and hypertension may affect sperm quality.

B. Female Fertility

Female fertility is also affected by lifestyle choices and nutritional status.

• Achieve/maintain healthy weight: Both extremes of body weight can disrupt menstrual cycles and ovulation.

• Moderate caffeine intake: Excessive caffeine may be linked to reduced fertility.

• Moderate alcohol intake: Alcohol can interfere with conception and fetal development.

C. Table: Caffeine Content in Common Foods

This table compares the caffeine content in various beverages and foods.

D. Avoid Smoking and Other Toxins

• Smoking contributes to infertility.

• Exposure to environmental toxins may disrupt reproductive health.

14.2 First Trimester of Pregnancy

A. Fetal Development

The first trimester is critical for organ formation and rapid cell division.

• Placenta develops and transfers nutrients to the fetus.

• Embryo is highly sensitive to nutritional deficiencies and toxins.

B. Maternal Nutrition

• Energy needs increase slightly.

• Folate is essential for neural tube development.

• Iron supports increased blood volume and fetal growth.

• Calcium and vitamin D are important for bone development.

C. Alcohol and Drug Use

• Alcohol and drugs can cause birth defects and pregnancy complications.

D. Increased Risk of Foodborne Illness

• Some pathogens can cross the placenta and harm the fetus.

• Avoid unpasteurized products, soft cheeses, deli meats, raw/undercooked foods.

14.3 Second Trimester of Pregnancy

A. Energy and Nutrient Needs

• Energy needs increase by about 340 kcal/day.

• Protein needs increase to support fetal growth.

B. Importance of Weight Gain

• Steady weight gain is recommended during pregnancy.

• Excessive or inadequate weight gain can affect fetal outcomes.

C. Pregnancy Complications

• Gestational hypertension: High blood pressure during pregnancy.

• Preeclampsia: Hypertension with protein in urine, can be life-threatening.

14.4 Third Trimester of Pregnancy

A. Continued Nutrient and Calorie Increase

• Energy needs increase by about 450 kcal/day.

• Development of hematopoiesis is common.

14.5 Special Case Pregnancies

A. Adolescent Mothers

• Higher risk of low birth weight and premature birth.

• Increased risk of hypertension.

B. Older Mothers (>35 years)

• Higher risk of gestational diabetes and high blood pressure.

• Double and triple screen measures for chromosomal abnormalities.

14.6 Benefits of Breastfeeding

A. Lactation

Lactation is the process by which the body produces milk to nourish infants.

• Colostrum: First milk, rich in antibodies and nutrients.

• Milk composition changes over time to meet infant needs.

B. Benefits for Mother

• Helps uterus shrink back to original size.

• May reduce risk of postpartum weight loss, breast cancer, and ovarian cancer.

C. Benefits for Infant

• Provides ideal nutrition and immune protection.

• Reduces risk of infections and chronic diseases.

14.7 Nutrition for Breastfeeding

A. Energy and Nutrient Needs

• Increased calorie and fluid needs.

• Maternal diet affects milk composition.

B. Alcohol and Smoking

• Alcohol and nicotine can pass into breast milk and affect infant health.

14.8 Infant Formula

A. Formula Feeding

• Formula is used when breastfeeding is not possible or contraindicated.

• Formulas are designed to mimic breast milk composition.

14.9 Nutritional Needs for Infants

A. Macronutrient Needs

• High energy and protein needs for rapid growth.

• Fat is important for brain and nervous system development.

B. Micronutrient Needs

• Iron, vitamin D, and calcium are critical for growth and development.

14.10 Introducing Solid Food

A. When to Introduce

• Typically at 4-6 months when infant shows readiness (e.g., sits with support, shows interest in food).

B. Food Allergies

• Common allergens: eggs, milk, peanuts, tree nuts, soy, fish, shellfish, wheat.

• Food allergens are proteins not broken down by cooking or digestion, causing immune responses.

C. Foodborne Illness

• Bacterial contamination can be fatal to infants.

15.1 Nutrition for Young Children

A. Energy and Nutrient Needs

• Toddlers (1-3 years): 1,000-1,400 kcal/day.

• Preschoolers (3-5 years): 1,200-1,600 kcal/day.

• Protein, calcium, iron, and fiber are important for growth and development.

B. Healthy Eating Habits

• Encourage fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.

• Limit sugary foods and drinks.

15.2 Nutrition for School-Aged Children

A. School Lunches

• Should provide balanced meals with fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins.

• Limit high-sugar and high-fat foods.

B. Physical Activity

• Encourage regular physical activity for healthy growth.

15.3 Nutrition for Adolescents

A. Energy and Nutrient Needs

• Increased needs for energy, protein, calcium, and iron due to rapid growth and puberty.

• Calcium is critical for bone development.

• Iron needs increase, especially for menstruating females.

15.4 Nutrition for Seniors

A. Changes with Aging

• Muscle mass declines with age.

• Need for nutrient-dense foods and antioxidants increases.

B. Fluid Needs

• Older adults may have reduced thirst sensation; monitor fluid intake.

C. Micronutrient Needs

• Vitamin D and calcium needs increase to prevent osteoporosis.

• Sodium intake should be reduced to avoid hypertension.

15.5 Nutritional Challenges for Seniors

A. Chronic Diseases

• Risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer increases with age.

• Alzheimer's disease can affect nutritional status due to memory and cognitive decline.

B. Cancer

• Linked to diet and lifestyle factors; processed meats and low fruit/vegetable intake increase risk.

C. Economic and Social Conditions

• Food insecurity: Lack of funds to purchase nutritious foods.

• Social isolation may affect access to food and nutrition.

D. Physical Activity

• Physical activity is important for maintaining health and independence.

• Seniors should avoid sitting for long periods.