Ch 1. Nutrition

Introduction to Nutrition

Nutrition is the science that studies food and how it nourishes our bodies and influences our health. Understanding nutrition is essential for promoting wellness and preventing chronic diseases.

• Nutrition: The study of food, nutrients, and their impact on health.

• Wellness: A holistic approach to health, including nutrition, physical activity, and lifestyle.

Importance of Nutrition in Health

Nutrition plays a vital role in supporting health and preventing chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and certain cancers. Many of these diseases are among the top ten causes of death in the U.S.

• Chronic Diseases: Long-term illnesses often associated with poor nutrition.

Dietary Guidelines and Nutrient Classes

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans and Healthy People 2020 provide recommendations for nutrient intake and food choices to promote health.

• Six Classes of Nutrients:

  • Carbohydrates

  • Proteins

  • Fats

  • Vitamins

  • Minerals

  • Water

• Macronutrients: Required in large amounts (carbohydrates, proteins, fats).

• Micronutrients: Required in small amounts (vitamins, minerals).

Energy and Caloric Values

Energy is measured in calories, and each nutrient provides a specific amount of energy per gram.

• Caloric Values:

  • Carbohydrates: 4 calories/gram

  • Proteins: 4 calories/gram

  • Fats: 9 calories/gram

  • Alcohol: 7 calories/gram

• Formula:

Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins are organic compounds essential for body functions, while minerals are inorganic elements needed for various physiological processes.

• Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E, K (can be stored in the body; risk of toxicity if consumed in excess).

• Water-Soluble Vitamins: B vitamins, vitamin C (not stored; excess excreted in urine).

• Major Minerals: Needed in amounts >100mg/day (e.g., sodium, potassium, calcium).

• Trace Minerals: Needed in amounts <100mg/day (e.g., iron, zinc, copper).

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)

DRIs are a set of reference values for nutrient intake to prevent deficiencies and promote optimal health.

• Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): Average daily intake sufficient for most healthy individuals.

• Estimated Average Requirement (EAR): Intake estimated to meet the needs of 50% of individuals.

• Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): Maximum daily intake unlikely to cause adverse health effects.

• Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR): Range of intake for carbohydrates, fats, and proteins associated with reduced risk of chronic disease.

Scientific Method in Nutrition

The scientific method is used to evaluate nutrition research and ensure accuracy.

1. Observation

2. Hypothesis

3. Designing experiment

4. Collection and analysis of data

5. Developing a theory based on repeated experiments

6. Peer review and critique

Phytochemicals and Functional Foods

Phytochemicals are compounds found in plants that may provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition.

Probiotics and Prebiotics

Probiotics and prebiotics play a role in maintaining intestinal health and microbial balance.

• Probiotics: Live microorganisms that improve intestinal microbial balance.

• Prebiotics: Non-digestible food ingredients that stimulate the growth and activity of probiotic bacteria.

Ch 2. Designing a Healthful Diet

Characteristics of a Healthful Diet

A healthful diet provides adequate energy and nutrients, is moderate, balanced, and varied.

• Adequate: Provides enough energy, nutrients, and fiber for health.

• Moderate: Contains appropriate amounts of foods to maintain proper weight and nutrition.

• Balanced: Combines foods in proper proportions.

• Varied: Includes different foods from all food groups regularly.

Nutrient Density

Nutrient-dense foods provide the highest levels of nutrients for the lowest number of calories.

• Nutrient Density: Ratio of nutrients to calories in a food.

Food Labels and Ingredient Lists

Food labels provide information about the nutritional content and ingredients of packaged foods.

• Ingredients are listed in order of abundance by weight.

• Nutrition information includes serving size, calories, and nutrient content.

• Use the Nutrition Facts Panel to determine nutritional adequacy.

Dietary Guidelines for Americans

The Dietary Guidelines provide recommendations for healthy eating patterns.

• Follow a healthful eating pattern across the lifespan.

• Limit calories from saturated fat, added sugars, and sodium.

• Shift to healthier food and beverage choices.

• Support healthy eating patterns for everyone.

Food Groups and MyPlate

MyPlate is a visual guide to help individuals build a balanced diet from the five food groups.

Designing a Healthful Ethnic Diet

MyPlate can be adapted to various cultural preferences and ethnic diets by emphasizing proportions and food categories rather than specific foods.

Energy Calculations and Physical Activity

Energy expenditure can be calculated based on body weight and activity level. Walking is a common example used to illustrate energy expenditure.

• Formula for Energy Expenditure:

  • Energy expended per hour = body weight (lb) × 2.6 kcal/lb/hr

  • Energy expended per minute = Energy per hour / 60

  • Time to expend excess energy = Excess kcal / kcal/min

  Example calculation:

  • (about 3 hours and 18 minutes)

Ch 3 The Human Body: Are We Really What We Eat?

After reading this chapter you will be able to:

1.     List the three main reasons our bodies need food.

1. We break food into molecules and use them to build, maintain, and repair body structures, the smallest of which are the components of individual body cells.

2.     Describe how long it takes for a meal to be digested and absorbed.

1. The entire digestion process takes approximately 24hours

3.     List the three signals that are sent to the hypothalamus to trigger hunger or satiety.

1. Signals from the feeding center (cluster of nerve cells within the hypothalamus)

   1. Nerve cells in stomach/small intestine send hunger signals when empty

2. Signals from the satiety center (inhibits feeding center cells)

   1. Nerve cells in mouth, pharynx (throat), and esophagus send satiety signals with chewing

3. Hormones: proteins or lipids, that are secreted into the bloodstream by one of the many glands

   1. Insulin/glucagon: a decrease in insulin and increase in glucagon signals hypothalamus to feel hunger and vice versa

   2. Ghrelin: hunger signal

   3. CCK: produced in the small intestine in response to food entry. Satiety signal

   4. Leptin: produced by stored fat cells. Satiety signal. Obese people are resistant.

4.     Distinguish between appetite and hunger, describing the mechanisms that stimulate each.

1. Appetite: a desire to eat that is stimulated by the sight, smell, or thought of food

2. Hunger: a physiologic drive to eat that occurs when our body senses that we need food

5.     List the types of foods that increase feelings of satiety and those that have less impact on feelings of satiety. In order:

1. Protein-rich foods, Bulky meals high in fiber and water

2. Semisolid Foods

3. Beverages

6.     Identify examples of each of the following: atom, molecule, cells, tissues, organ, organ system

1. Atom: Hydrogen

2. Molecule: Water

3. Cells: Enterocytes that line the intestine

4. Tissues: Muscle tissue

5. Organ: Esophogas

6. Organ System: GI System

7.     Draw a schematic of a cell membrane, labeling the ends in the phospholipid bilayer and explaining the orientation of the phospholipid molecules in this bilayer.

1. The membrane defines the cell’s boundaries: it encloses the cell’s contents and acts as a gatekeeper, either allowing or denying the entry and exit of molecules, such as nutrients and wastes.

8.     Draw a picture of the gastrointestinal tract, labeling all major and accessory organs including the following: mouth, teeth, tongue, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, gall bladder, liver, pancreas, rectum, anus.

9.     Describe the structures of the small intestine and list the function of each.  Describe the secretions that aid in digestion within the small intestine.

1. Duodenum: Connected via pyloric sphincter to the stomach. In response to the presence of protein and fat in the chyme, glandular cells in the duodenum secrete the hormone CCK. CCK signals gallbladder to contract releasing bile that emulsifies fat via a common bile duct.

2. Jejunum: Majority of absorption using extensive circular folds, villi, and microvilli (on the lining of the small intestine with an outer layer of absorptive cells (enterocytes)) to increase surface area.

3. Ilium: Connected to the larch intestine via ileocecal valve. Absorbs remaining nutrients and bile salts.

10.  Define the vocabulary terms associated with the digestive tract.

1. Alimentary canal (or gastrointestinal/GI tract): The continuous muscular tube that extends from the mouth to the anus, where digestion and absorption of food occur.

2. Enzyme: A protein molecule that acts as a catalyst to speed up specific biochemical reactions, such as those involved in digestion.

3. Mouth: The beginning of the digestive tract, where chewing and the initial breakdown of carbohydrates take place.

4. Mastication: The process of chewing food, which breaks it down into smaller pieces and mixes it with saliva to prepare it for swallowing.

5. Salivary glands: Glands in the mouth that produce saliva, which contains enzymes to begin breaking down starches.

6. Pharynx: The common passageway for both food and air, located behind the mouth.

7. Esophagus: The muscular tube that connects the pharynx (throat) to the stomach. It transports food via peristalsis.

8. Epiglottis: A small, flexible, leaf-shaped flap of cartilage that covers the windpipe (larynx) during swallowing to prevent food from entering the lungs.

9. Stomach: A muscular, J-shaped organ that mixes and churns food with digestive juices, turning it into chyme.

10. Chyme: The semi-fluid, pulpy mixture of food and gastric juices that passes from the stomach to the small intestine.

11. Large intestine: The final part of the GI tract, consisting of the cecum, colon, and rectum. It absorbs water and electrolytes from indigestible food matter.

12. Anus: The external opening at the end of the rectum, through which solid waste is expelled.

13. Rectum: The last section of the large intestine, which stores feces before elimination

11.  Describe the contribution of each organ of the gastrointestinal system to the digestion, absorption, and elimination of food.

1. Mouth

   1. Digestion: Mechanical breakdown through chewing and the start of chemical digestion of starches by salivary enzymes.

   2. Absorption: No significant absorption occurs.

   3. Elimination: Not involved in elimination.

2. Esophagus

   1. Digestion: No digestion.

   2. Absorption: No absorption.

   3. Elimination: Transports food from the mouth to the stomach via peristalsis.

3. Stomach

   1. Digestion: Mixes food with acid and enzymes (like pepsin) to break down proteins into smaller fragments.

   2. Absorption: Minimal absorption of some substances, like water and alcohol, but not the primary site.

   3. Elimination: The stomach is a temporary storage site for food before it moves on.

4. Small Intestine

   1. Digestion: Receives digestive juices from the pancreas and bile from the liver to further break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

   2. Absorption: Absorbs the vast majority of nutrients, including amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, into the bloodstream.

   3. Elimination: Not directly involved in elimination.

5. Large Intestine

   1. Digestion: Contains bacteria that can break down some remaining waste, but the main function is not digestion.

   2. Absorption: Absorbs water and electrolytes from the remaining indigestible food matter.

   3. Elimination: Compacts waste material and stores it for elimination.

6. Rectum and Anus

   1. Digestion: Not involved.

   2. Absorption: No absorption.

   3. Elimination: The rectum stores feces, and the anus expels them from the body, controlled by the anal sphincter.

7. Accessory Organs

   1. Liver: Produces bile to help digest fats.

   2. Gallbladder: Stores and concentrates bile from the liver to release into the small intestine.

   3. Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid, which are released into the small intestine.

12.  Describe the role of the lymphatic system in nutrition.

1. absorb and transport dietary fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the small intestine into the bloodstream

13.  Discuss the causes, symptoms, and treatments of:

1. gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD):

   1. Causes: Weak lower esophageal sphincter, which allows stomach acid to back up. Common triggers include large meals, certain foods (fatty, spicy, acidic, chocolate, mint), and obesity

   2. Symptoms: Heartburn, chest pain, regurgitation, difficulty swallowing, and a sensation of a lump in the throat

   3. Treatments:

      1. Lifestyle: Weight loss, elevating the head of the bed, avoiding large meals, and not lying down immediately after eating.

      2. Dietary: Avoiding trigger foods like coffee, alcohol, and fatty or spicy foods.

      3. Medications: Antacids for occasional relief, H2 blockers, and proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) to reduce acid production.

      4. Surgical: In severe cases, surgery may be an option.

2. Ulcers:

   1. Causes: Infection with the H. pylori bacterium or long-term use of NSAID pain relievers.

   2. Symptoms: Burning stomach pain, bloating, feeling full, and nausea.

   3. Treatments:

      1. Medications: Antibiotics to treat H. pylori, and proton pump inhibitors to reduce stomach acid.

      2. Lifestyle: Avoiding trigger foods and stopping NSAID use.

3. Diarrhea:

   1. Causes: Infections, food poisoning, food intolerances, and certain medications.

   2. Symptoms: Loose, watery stools, abdominal cramping.

   3. Treatments: Avoiding trigger foods

4. Constipation:

   1. Causes: Dehydration, low fiber intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications.

   2. Symptoms: Infrequent bowel movements, straining, and hard stools.

   3. Treatments:

      1. Lifestyle: Staying hydrated, increasing fiber intake, getting regular exercise.

      2. Dietary: Avoiding trigger foods for diarrhea, and eating more fiber

      3. Medications: Laxatives or stool softeners

5. Food allergy

   1. Causes: An immune system reaction to a specific food protein.

   2. Symptoms: Vary widely but can include hives, swelling, digestive issues, and anaphylaxis.

   3. Treatments: Strict avoidance of the trigger food.

6. Food intolerance

   1. Causes: Difficulty digesting a specific food, often due to an enzyme deficiency.

   2. Symptoms: digestive issues

   3. Treatments: Avoidance of the trigger food.

7. celiac disease:

   1. Causes: An autoimmune disorder triggered by gluten (a protein in wheat, barley, and rye) that causes damage to the small intestine.

   2. Symptoms: Diarrhea, bloating, abdominal pain, and nutrient deficiencies.

   3. Treatments:

      1. Dietary: A lifelong, strict gluten-free diet.

      2. Medical: No cure, but managing the condition with a gluten-free diet prevents the long-term complications of the disease.

14.  Discuss the difference between a food allergy and a food intolerance.

1. Food intolerance: a particular food causes numerous unpleasant symptoms, including Gas, Pain, Diarrhea. The immune system is not involved

2. Food allergy: hypersensitivity reaction of the immune system to a component in a food

15.  List the common allergenic foods.

1. "Big 8," are milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, crustacean shellfish, soy, and wheat

16.  Describe the cephalic phase of digestion.

1. In the cephalic phase of digestion, hunger and appetite work together to prepare the GI tract.

17.  Describe the importance of emulsification in digestion and absorption.

1. Emulsification is crucial for digestion and absorption because it breaks down large fat globules into smaller droplets, significantly increasing the surface area for digestive enzymes to work on

Ch 4: Carbohydrates

Ch 4   Carbohydrates

After reading this chapter you will be able to:

1.     Describe the difference between simple and complex carbohydrates. List the three monosaccharides, list the three disaccharides, list three complex carbohydrates. How is each different from the others, both in terms of structure, use by the body and/or food source? Distinguish between starch, glycogen and fiber.

1. Simple Carbohydrates: Sugars

   1. 3 of these sugars are monosaccharides:  single sugar molecules ( 6 carbons, 12 hydrogens, 6 oxygens with different arrangements)

      1. Glucose

      2. Galactose: does not occur alone in foods. Joins with Glucose to create Lactose (a disaccharide)

      3. Fructose (levulose): natural sugar in fruits/vegetables

   2. Other 3 are disaccharides: two molecules of sugar joined together

      1. Lactose: “Milk sugar” consists of one glucose and one galactose

         1. Broken down into glucose and galactose by lactase

      2. Maltose: “Malt sugar” consists of two glucose. Does not occur alone in foods but is created with fermentation of carbs

         1. Broken down by maltase

      3. Sucrose: One glucose and one fructose , sweeter than lactose/maltose. Honey, syrup, fruits/vegetables . Table sugar/brown sugar/powdered sugar

         1. Broken down into glucose and fructose by sucrase

2. Complex Carbohydrates: Consists of long chains of glucose molecules (polysaccharides).

   1. Starch: Storage form of glucose in plants. Found in grains (wheat, oats, corn, rice, barley), legumes (peas, beans, lentils), and tubers (potatoes and yams)

      1. Most starches are easily digested but some plant starches are resistant.

      2. Resistant starch is a type of fiber: intestinal bacteria ferments a fatty acid called butyrate which can be beneficial in reducing cancer risk. Legumes contain more resistant starch

   2. Glycogen: Storage form of glucose in animals. Stored in the liver and muscles. Broken down by enzymes in tissue so very little is consumed with meat.Plants have none.

   3. Fiber: Forms the support structures of leaves, stems, and plants

      1. Dietary Fiber: “Plant skeleton”. Nondigestible parts of plants that forms the support structures of leaves, stems, and seeds

      2. Functional Fiber: Nondigestible form of carbohydrates known to have health benefits. Extracted from plants or manufactured in a lab. Examples include cellulose, guar gum, pectin, psyllium.

      3. Total Fiber: Sum of dietary fiber and functional fiber.

2.     Describe the structural differences between amylose and amylopectin and the affect each structure has on blood sugar.

3.     Distinguish between the roles and food sources of soluble and insoluble fiber

1. Soluble Fibers: dissolve in water and viscous (gel-like consistency). Fermentable and easily digested by bacteria in the colon. Lowers blood cholesterol and glucose. Includes oats, barley, fruits

   1. Pectins: Fruits and berries

   2. Fructans: Stems of vegetables and grasses. Examples is inulin which has prebiotics

   3. Gums: Viscous polysaccharides isolated from seeds, Used as thickener.

   4. Mucilages: similar to gums but used as food stabilizers. Examples are Psyllium and Carrageenan.

2. Insoluble Fibers: Does not dissolve in water and is nonviscous and cannot be fermented. Do not reduce cholesterol but promote bowel movements. Includes wheat, rye, brown rice, and vegetables.

   1. Lignins: Found in the woody parts of plant cell walls.

   2. Cellulose: Main structural component of plant cell walls. Chain of glucose units similar to those in starch but the bonds are not digested.

   3. Hemicellulose (insoluble but can be soluble) : Found in plant cell walls, they surround cellulose. Primary component of cereal fibers

4.     List four functions of carbohydrates in our bodies.

1. Provide energy: Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose, which serves as the body's main source of immediate fuel for all its activities.

2. Spare protein and fat: By providing the body with its necessary energy, carbohydrates "spare" protein and fat from being used for energy, allowing them to perform their other critical functions like building and repairing tissues.

3. Store energy: The body can store excess glucose as glycogen, primarily in the liver and muscles, to be used for energy when needed.

4. Build macromolecules: Carbohydrates are used to build other essential macromolecules, such as DNA, RNA, and glycoproteins.

5.     Insufficient carbohydrate intake can result in ketone production. What is a ketone? What is its chemical structure?

1. Ketones: Substances produced during the breakdown of fat when carb intake is too low. Ketones are acids and high levels can make blood too acidic leading to ketoacidoses

   1. Ketones contain a central carbonyl group, which is a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom

   2. This carbonyl carbon is bonded to two other carbon atoms. This is what distinguishes a ketone from an aldehyde, where the carbonyl carbon is bonded to at least one hydrogen atom.

6.     List four functions of fiber in our bodies.

1. Promotes bowel health: Prevents hemorrhoids, constipation by keeping stool moist and soft. Gives gut “something to push on”

   1. Reduces risk of diverticulosis: caused by trying to eliminate small, hard stools

2. Reduces the risk of colon cancer: binds to cancer-causing substances and speeds up their elimination

3. Enhances weight loss: causes people to feel more full by absorbing water and expanding the bowel

4. Reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease by delaying/blocking absorption of cholesterol into the bloodstream. Bacteria in the colon ferment soluble fiber and produce short chain fatty acids (type of fat that reduce production of LDL )

5. Lowers risk of Type 2 Diabetes: slows digestion and absorption, slows release of glucose into the blood helping regulate insulin production

7.     List four of the highest fiber foods, according to the image in your text.

1. Whole grains/Legumes: Navy beans, lentils, black beans, kidney beans

2. Fruits: blackberries, pear, banana, strawberries

3. Nuts and seeds

8.     List the grams of fiber needed per day by men and women.

1. 25g for women

2. 38g for men

3. Avoid >50g

9.     Describe the components of a whole grain (see image in text).

1. Bran: Outermost Covering. Very high in fiber and constraints most of the grains vitamins and minerals

2. Endosperm: Grains Midsection. Contains the grains carbs/protein

3. Germ: Sits deep in the base of the kernel surrounded by endosperm. Contains healthy fats/ some vitamins

10.  Discuss how carbohydrates are digested and absorbed by our bodies. Discuss which parts of the digestive tract play the biggest role in carbohydrate digestion.

1. Mouth: Starch from food mixes with saliva during chewing

   1. Salivary Amylase: breaks starch into smaller particles and eventually into disaccharide maltose

2. Stomach: all digestion of carbohydrates cease as the acid inactivates salivary amylase

3. Small Intestine: Majority of carbohydrate digestion occurs

   1.  Pancreatic amylase: digests remaining starch into maltose and enzymes in the microvilli of the enterocytes break down disaccharides into monosaccharides for absorption into the bloodstream.

      1. Maltase breaks maltose into glucose + glucose

      2. Sucrase breaks sucrose into fructose +glucose

      3. Lactase breaks lactose into glucose +galactose

4. Liver: fructose and galactose in the bloodstream are converted to glucose.

   1. If not used immediately, enzymes in liver and muscle cells combine glucose molecules to form glycogen through glycogenesis

   2. Liver can store 70g (280kcal) and the muscle can store 120g (480kcal) of glycogen

   3. Stored glycogen is converted back to glucose through glycogenolysis

11.  Distinguish between insulin and glucagon. Describe the process for glucose regulation in the human body.

1. Insulin: secreted into the blood by pancreatic cells called beta cells. It stimulates glucose transporters within cells to allow glucose into the cell. Also stimulates the liver and muscles to take up glucose and store as glycogen

2. Glucagon: secreted by pancreatic cells called alpha cells. Triggers glycogenolysis to secrete glucose into the blood. Assists in the breakdown of proteins (gluconeogenesis)

12.  Define the RDA for carbohydrates and define what percentage of total daily calories should come from carbohydrates.

1. For adults >19years should have 130g carbohydrates per day. 45 to 65% of total energy intake associated with decreased risk of chronic disease

13.  Describe the glycemic index and identify the glycemic index for a variety of foods.

1. Glycemic Index: potential of food to raise blood glucose levels

2. Apple has a lower glycemic index value (38) compared to white rice (56)

3. glycemic index and glycemic load of more than 100 foods, visit www.health.harvard.edu/. Type “glycemic index 100 foods” in the search bar, then click on the link.

4. Glycemic Load: Number of grams of carbs the serving contains multiplied by the foods glycemic index, divided by 100

14.  Define the maximum amount of added sugar, in grams, that men and women should consume per day.

1. 10% or less of total energy intake should be added to sugars.

2. <25g for women

3. <36g for men

15.  Identify the potential health risks associated with diets high in refined sugars.

1. Weight gain/obesity

2. Type 2 Diabetes

3. Heart Disease

16.  List five foods that are good sources of carbohydrates.

1. Oats

2. Sweet potatoes

3. Beans

4. Whole wheat pasta

5. bananas

17.  Identify three alternative sweeteners.

1. Stevia

2. Sucralose

3. Aspartame

18.  Identify benefits of sugar alcohols.

1. Sugar alcohols do not promote tooth decay like regular sugar

2. Sugar alcohols have a lower glycemic index than sugar

3. Sugar alcohols contain fewer calories than sugar

19.  Use symptoms to identify the type of diabetes.(Type I vs. Type II)

1. Type 1: 5% people

   1. Increased / frequent urination

   2. Excessive thirst

   3. Constant hunger

   4. Sudden unexplained weight loss

   5. Extreme fatigue

   6. Blurred vison

2. Type 2: 90-95% with 80-90% being obese

   1. Any of the Type 1 symptoms

   2. Greater frequency of infection

   3. Slow healing of wounds or sores

   4. Tingling or numbness in hands or feet

   5. Dry skin

20.  Identify the characteristics of type I and type II diabetes.

1. Type 1: The pancreas is unable to secrete insulin, kidneys try excreting it in the urine. Autoimmune, sudden onset, mostly diagnosed in adolescence. Genetic link.

2. Type 2: Body becomes less responsive (resistant) to insulin. Develops over time. Inappropriate lipid accumulation.

21.  Identify who is at risk for diabetes.

1. Genetic

2. Obesity

Ch 5: Lipids

Ch 5 Lipids

After reading this chapter you will be able to:

1.     List and describe the three types of lipids found in foods.

1. Triglycerides: 3 carbon glycerol backbone + 3 fatty acids (hydrocarbon chain)

2. Phospholipids: Phosphorus containing glycerol +2 fatty acids

   1. Amphipathic allows them to form membranes and help transport molecules into the bloodstream.

3. Sterols: Lipids with a multi ring structure (4 rings). DO NOT have fatty acids

   1. Cholesterol is the most common sterol. Only found in animal foods/membranes. Not essential in our diet because the liver can synthesize. It is a precursor for vit D, bile, and sex hormones. Too much in the blood (LDL) associated with cardiovascular disease.

2.     Visually recognize the chemical structures of saturated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids, cholesterol and trans fats

1. Saturated fatty acids: fully saturated with hydrogen and contain fewer double bonds allowing them to take a more linear confirmation/ more tightly packed so more likely to be solid at room temp. More abundant in animal products

2. Unsaturated Fatty acids: not fully saturated with hydrogen causing more double bonds causing kinds in the chain making them less packed together and form liquids at room temp. More abundant in plant/plant based products / fish

   1. Cis configuration: hydrogen on the same side of the chain:

      1. Monounsaturated fatty acids: only have 1 double bond/1 kink

      2. Polyunsaturated fatty acids: multiple double bonds

   2. Trans configuration: hydrogen on the opposite side of the chain

3.     Be able to draw a fatty acid- either saturated or unsaturated.

1. Saturated: more hydrogen, no kinks

2. Unsaturated: less hydrogen, more kinks (1 kind is mono, multiple kink is poly)

   1. cis configuration occurs when the hydrogen atoms attached to the double bond are on the same side.

   2. trans configuration has hydrogen atoms on opposite sides of the double bond, resulting in a straight or linear hydrocarbon chain. This structure allows trans fatty acids to pack tightly together, making them more likely to be solid at room temperature

4.     Be able to label the omega end of a fatty acid.

1. Often Polyunsaturated fatty acids with double bond closest to the omega(w) carbon (carbon furthest from carboxylic acid)

   1. Omega 6 is 6 carbons away from the omega carbon

   2. Omega 3 is 3 carbons away from the omega carbon

5.     Be able to explain the difference between an omega-6 fatty acid and an omega-3 fatty acid.

1. Omega-6: 6 carbons away from omega carbon, vegetable oils, nuts/seeds, eggs. Precursor to LA which is a precursor to arachionic acid and eicosanoids (act as hormones and regulate body processes)

2. Omega-3: 3 carbons away from omega carbon Plants, flaxseed, canola oil, chia, seeds and walnuts. Precurser to ALA is a precursor to EPA and DHA found in fish

6.     Explain how differences in structure between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids determine if a fatty acid will be a solid or liquid at room temperature.

1. Saturated: more hydrogen, no kinks, more condensed, solid

2. Unsaturated: less hydrogen, more kinks , less condensed, liquid

7.     Be able to identify a trans fatty acid from a label ingredient list.

8.     Describe the roles and food sources of the two main essential fatty acids.

1. Omega-6: vegetable oils, nuts/seeds, eggs. Precursor to LA which is a precursor to arachionic acid and eicosanoids (act as hormones and regulate body processes)

2. Omega-3: Plants, flaxseed, canola oil, chia, seeds and walnuts. Precurser to ALA is a precursor to EPA and DHA found in fish

9.     Describe the structure of a phospholipid and its main role in the body.

10.  Explain the derivation of the term trans fatty acid and how trans fatty acids can negatively affect our health.

11.  List three functions of fat in our bodies.

1. Provide/ store energy

2. Insulate the body

3. Protect organs

4. Phospholipids form cell membranes

5. Cholesterol is vitamin D and sex hormone precursor

12.  Identify the role of fat in foods.

1. Providing and storing energy (9kcal per gram)

2. Facilitate digestion, absorption,and transport of other lipids and fat soluble vitamins

13.  Describe the steps involved in fat digestion.

1. Micelle: collects lipids from bloods stream for enterocytes

   1. Monoglyceride

   2. Cholesterol

   3. Faty acid

2. Enterocytes

3. Chylomicron brings fat into lacteal for circulation and transpots- too big to go into capilary

14.  Define the recommended dietary intakes for total fat, saturated fat, trans fats, and the two essential fatty acids.

1. Total Fat: 20-35%

2. Limit consumption of saturated fats to <10% total daily energy, replace with unsaturated fats and oils.

3. Avoid trans fats

4. Cholesterol is not essential < 300mg

5. Omega 6 (LA) min 11-14g

6. Omega 3 (ALA) min of 1.1-1.3g

15.  Identify at least three common food sources of unhealthful fats and three common sources of beneficial fats.

1. Unhealthy fats: butter, processed meat, fried foods

2. Healthy, olive oils, nuts/seeds, fish

16.  List the three types of cardiovascular disease

1. Coronary heart/artery diseases

2. Strokes

3. Heart failure

17.  Describe the DASH diet.

18.  List the risk factors for cardiovascular disease

1. Atherosclerosis: build up of fatty plaques that narrow/ harden arteries impairing blood flow

2. Hypertension (HTN): consistently high blood pressure and increases health problems

3. Obesity

4. Smoking

5. Unhealthy diet

6. Alcohol

7. age/genetics/stress

19.  Identify the types of fats that may reduce risk for cardiovascular disease and the types of fat that may increase risk for cardiovascular disease

1. Reduces Risk:            

20.  Know the role in the body and chemical composition of both LDL and HDL

1. LDL: low-density lipoprotein, transports cholesterol from the liver to the body's cells, but high levels can lead to plaque buildup in arteries, earning it the name "bad" cholesterol.

2. HDL: high-density lipoprotein, is known as "good" cholesterol because it carries excess cholesterol from the arteries back to the liver for removal, helping to lower heart disease risk

21.  Identify the optimal levels of HDL, LDL and cholesterol in the body.

1. Total cholesterol <200

2. HDL: >40, >60 is protective

3. LDL: <100

22.  Distinguish between coronary heart disease, stroke, hypertension and peripheral vascular disease.

1. Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a problem with the arteries supplying the heart, while a

2. A stroke is a brain event caused by blood flow blockage to the brain.

3. Hypertension is high blood pressure, which can damage blood vessels throughout the body

23.  Explain how coconut oil is different from and similar to animal based saturated fat.

Ch 6: Proteins

Ch 6: Proteins

1.     List essential amino acids: 9/20 are essential

1. Histidine,

2. Leucine,

3. Lysine.

4. Phenylalanine,

5. Tryptophan

• Conditionally essential amino acid: Not essential for most of the population but may become essential due to individuals inability to synthesize it

2.     Describe how proteins differ from carbohydrates and fats.

1. Proteins are made up of amino acids

2. Nitrogen

3. Not chemically digested in the mouth

3.     Visually identify an amino acid or protein. Be able to draw a basic amino acid (drawn with an “R” group)

1. Amine Group

2. Acid Group (Carboxyl)

3. Hydrogen

4. Side chain

4.     Identify the possible fates of amino acids in the body

1. protein turnover: synthesis and breakdown of proteins to replenish amino acid pool

2. In the liver have:

   1. Build new proteins

   2. Build non-proteins, nitrogen containing products like hormones

   3. Deaminated then used as last resort energy source or converted to glucose or fat

5.     Identify the four levels of protein structure.

1. Primary: most important, determines every other str