Foundational Concepts in Psychology

Overview

This section introduces essential terms and concepts in psychology, providing a foundation for understanding the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Mastery of these definitions is crucial for success in introductory psychology courses.

• Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

• Prediction: The ability to anticipate future behaviors or outcomes based on current knowledge.

• Control: The process of manipulating variables to determine their effect on behavior.

• Functionalism: An early school of psychology focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior.

• Structuralism: An early school of psychology that aimed to identify the basic elements of conscious experience.

• Behaviorism: The theory that psychology should study observable behaviors rather than mental processes.

• Psychoanalysis: Freud's theory emphasizing unconscious motives and conflicts.

• Psychiatrist: A medical doctor specializing in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.

• Psychologist: A professional trained in the science of behavior and mental processes.

• Hypothesis: A testable prediction derived from a theory.

• Correlation: A statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.

• Naturalistic observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.

• Case study: An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event.

• Independent variable: The variable manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.

• Dependent variable: The variable measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.

• Random assignment: Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences.

• Neuron: The basic unit of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information.

• Axon: The long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body.

• Resting potential: The electrical charge of a neuron when it is not firing.

• Action potential: A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon, enabling neuron communication.

• Synapse: The junction between two neurons where information is transmitted.

• Receptor sites: Locations on a neuron where neurotransmitters bind.

• Central nervous system (CNS): Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): All nerves outside the CNS.

• Reflex arc: The neural pathway that controls a reflex action.

• Sympathetic division: Part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for action (fight or flight).

• Parasympathetic division: Part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body (rest and digest).

• Hormones: Chemical messengers secreted by glands that regulate bodily functions.

• Adrenal glands: Glands that produce hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol.

• CT scan, MRI, PET scan, MEG: Imaging techniques used to study brain structure and function.

• Cerebral cortex: The outer layer of the brain involved in complex mental functions.

• Thalamus: The brain's sensory relay station.

• Hypothalamus: Regulates basic biological needs and drives.

• Hippocampus: Involved in memory formation.

• Amygdala: Involved in emotion, especially fear and aggression.

• Corpus callosum: Connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

• Broca's area: Region in the frontal lobe associated with speech production.

• Wernicke's area: Region in the temporal lobe associated with language comprehension.

• Absolute threshold: The minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

• Difference threshold (Just Noticeable Difference, JND): The smallest difference in stimulation that can be detected.

• Color blindness: Inability to perceive certain colors.

• Trichromatic theory: Theory that color vision is based on three types of cones (red, green, blue).

• Opponent-process theory: Theory that color vision is based on opposing pairs of colors.

• Near/farsightedness: Visual conditions where close or distant objects are blurry due to the shape of the eye.

• Taste buds: Sensory organs on the tongue that detect taste.

• Papillae: Small bumps on the tongue containing taste buds.

• Olfactory bulbs: Structures in the brain involved in the sense of smell.

• Binocular cues: Depth cues that require both eyes (e.g., retinal disparity).

• Monocular cues: Depth cues available to either eye alone (e.g., linear perspective).

• Illusion: A misperception of a real external stimulus.

• Classical conditioning: Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

• Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

• Unconditioned response (UR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the US.

• Conditioned stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, triggers a conditioned response.

• Conditioned response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

• Stimulus generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

• Stimulus discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.

• Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response when the US no longer follows the CS.

• Operant conditioning: Learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment.

• Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

• Punishment: Any event that decreases the behavior it follows.

• Positive/negative reinforcement: Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus; negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus.

• Positive/negative punishment: Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus; negative punishment removes a desirable stimulus.

• Schedules of reinforcement: Rules that determine how and when reinforcement is delivered (e.g., fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval).

Key Questions and Concepts for Review

Experimental Design and Correlation

• Representative samples and random assignment: Ensures that study results are generalizable and that groups are equivalent at the start of an experiment.

• Steps in designing an experiment: Formulate a hypothesis, select variables, assign participants, collect data, analyze results, and draw conclusions.

• Correlation: Indicates the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables. Positive correlation: both variables increase together. Negative correlation: one increases as the other decreases. Correlation coefficient () ranges from -1 to +1.

• Correlation vs. causation: Correlation does not imply causation; other variables may be involved.

Neurons and Neural Communication

• Structure of a neuron: Consists of dendrites, cell body (soma), axon, and axon terminals.

• Action potential: A rapid change in electrical charge that travels down the axon. Sodium (Na+) ions enter the neuron during action potential; potassium (K+) ions exit.

• Resting potential: The neuron’s stable, negative charge when inactive.

• Neurotransmission: Electrical signals travel along the neuron; chemical signals (neurotransmitters) cross the synapse to the next neuron.

Brain Structure and Function

• Brain imaging: Techniques such as CT, MRI, PET, and MEG allow researchers to study brain structure and activity.

• Split-brain research: Studies individuals with severed corpus callosum to understand hemispheric specialization. Left hemisphere: language, logic; right hemisphere: spatial, creative tasks.

Sensation and Perception

• Visual system: Includes the eye, retina, rods, cones, and optic nerve. Light enters the eye, is focused by the lens, and detected by photoreceptors.

• Color vision: Trichromatic theory (three types of cones) and opponent-process theory (opposing color pairs) explain color perception.

• Depth perception: Binocular cues (e.g., retinal disparity) and monocular cues (e.g., linear perspective) help perceive depth.

• Illusions: Misinterpretations of sensory information, often studied to understand perception.

Learning and Conditioning

• Classical conditioning: Learning by association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

• Operant conditioning: Learning based on consequences (reinforcement and punishment).

• Schedules of reinforcement: Patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced (fixed/variable ratio, fixed/variable interval).

• Reinforcement vs. punishment: Reinforcement increases behavior; punishment decreases behavior. Positive adds a stimulus; negative removes a stimulus.

Table: Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning

Additional info:

• Some terms and questions were inferred from context and standard introductory psychology curricula.

• Students should be able to define all listed terms and answer the review questions for exam preparation.