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Study Guide - Smart Notes
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How Should We Think about Development?
Defining Development
Development refers to systematic changes and continuities in individuals between conception and death, often described as changes in gains, losses, or differences from previous states. These changes can be continuous or discontinuous and occur across various domains.
Biological/Physical Development: Involves growth of the body and its organs, physiological systems (e.g., brain, physical aging), and motor skills.
Cognitive Development: Encompasses changes in perception, language, learning, memory, problem solving, and other mental processes.
Psychosocial Development: Includes changes in personality, interpersonal skills, relationships, emotions, and social roles.
Developmentalists may specialize in one domain but recognize the interconnectedness of all three. For example, a child's cognitive growth can influence their social skills, and physical changes can affect emotional well-being.
Example: A baby who develops motor skills by pulling pans out of kitchen cabinets also learns about cause and effect, and may improve social skills by interacting with family members.
Development is not always a simple progression of gains; it can involve stability and loss. For instance, some cognitive abilities may decline with age, while others remain stable or improve.
Conceptualizing the Life Span
Periods of the Life Span
Developmental psychology divides the life span into distinct periods, each with unique characteristics and developmental tasks. These periods are approximate and can vary across cultures and individuals.
Period of Life | Age Range |
|---|---|
Prenatal period | Conception to birth |
Infancy | First 2 years of life (first month is neonatal or newborn period) |
Preschool period | 2–5 years (toddlers transition to preschoolers) |
Middle childhood | 6 to about 10 years (until onset of puberty) |
Adolescence | Approximately 10–18 years (from puberty to independence) |
Emerging adulthood | 18–25 years (transitional period between adolescence and adulthood) |
Early adulthood | 25–40 years (adult roles established) |
Middle adulthood | 40–65 years |
Late adulthood | 65 years and older (subcategories exist, e.g., young-old, old-old, centenarians) |
Additional info: The concept of "emerging adulthood" is a recent addition, reflecting the extended transition from adolescence to full adult roles in modern societies.
Cultural Differences in Developmental Periods
Culture shapes how societies define and treat different periods of the life span. Age, gender, race, and other factors influence expectations and experiences.
Age Grades: Socially defined age groups (e.g., school grades, legal adulthood at 18 in the U.S.) mark transitions and privileges.
Rites of Passage: Ceremonies or rituals (e.g., bar/bat mitzvah, quinceañera) signify entry into new social roles or adulthood.
Example: In Japan, the "Coming of Age Day" celebrates 20-year-olds as adults, while in the U.S., legal adulthood is recognized at 18, but other privileges (e.g., drinking alcohol) may come later.
Different cultures may have unique pathways and expectations for development, affecting how individuals experience transitions such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
Social Norms and Age Expectations
Age norms are societal expectations for appropriate behavior at different ages. These norms influence life decisions, such as when to marry, retire, or become a parent.
Example: In the U.S., it is common to expect marriage around age 25 and retirement around age 65, but these norms can vary widely.
Importance: Age norms help individuals navigate social roles and transitions, but can also create pressure or stress if personal circumstances differ from societal expectations.
Subcultural Differences
Subcultures within a society (e.g., ethnic groups, socioeconomic status) can have distinct developmental pathways and expectations.
Socioeconomic Status (SES): Lower-income families may experience earlier transitions to adulthood and face different challenges compared to higher-SES families.
Ethnic and Racial Subcultures: African American, Hispanic, Asian American, Native American, and European American families may have unique values and developmental experiences.
Example: Grandmothers in some cultures may care for grandchildren, while in others, child care is provided by non-family members.
Additional info: It is important to avoid overgeneralization, as individual experiences can vary greatly even within subcultures.
Key Terms and Concepts
Development: Systematic changes and continuities in individuals over time.
Age Grade: Socially defined age group with specific roles and privileges.
Rite of Passage: Ritual marking transition between life stages.
Age Norms: Societal expectations for behavior at certain ages.
Socioeconomic Status (SES): Classification based on income, education, and occupation.
Subculture: Group within a society with distinct values and practices.
Summary Table: Domains of Development
Domain | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
Biological/Physical | Growth and changes in body and physiological systems | Brain development, puberty, aging |
Cognitive | Changes in mental processes | Language acquisition, problem solving, memory |
Psychosocial | Changes in personality, emotions, social relationships | Identity formation, family roles, peer interactions |
Conclusion
Understanding development requires considering biological, cognitive, and psychosocial domains, as well as the influence of culture, social norms, and subcultures. Development is a lifelong process, shaped by both universal patterns and individual differences.
