Helping & Prosocial Behaviour

Definition and Examples

Prosocial behaviour refers to actions intended to benefit another person. This includes helping, giving, sharing, and cooperating. Such behaviours are fundamental to social cohesion and are studied extensively in psychology.

• Helping: Providing assistance to others in need.

• Giving: Donating resources or time.

• Sharing: Distributing resources among others.

• Cooperating: Working together towards a common goal.

Situational Influences on Helping

People are more likely to help in certain situations, such as when escape is difficult, the victim has sympathetic characteristics, or when the helper is in a good mood. Positive role models and conformity also increase helping, while being in a hurry decreases it.

• Victim characteristics: People are more likely to help those who appear vulnerable (e.g., using a cane).

• Good mood: Positive emotions increase likelihood of helping.

• Conformity: Seeing others help can prompt helping behaviour.

• Not in a hurry: Time pressure reduces helping.

The Bystander Effect

Definition and Causes

The bystander effect describes the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present. This is due to diffusion of responsibility and social influence.

• Diffusion of responsibility: Each bystander assumes someone else will help.

• Social influence: People use others as guides for behaviour.

• Five steps to helping: Notice the event, interpret as emergency, take responsibility, know how to help, and act.

Why Do We Help?

Genetic and Learned Influences

Helping behaviour is influenced by both genetic predispositions and learned social norms. Kin selection theory suggests people are more likely to help those who are genetically related.

• Kin selection: Helping relatives increases the likelihood of passing on genes.

• Norms of reciprocity: Social expectation to return favours.

• Learning: Helpful behaviour is learned through rewards and internalized values.

Altruism

Altruism is the motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's own self-interest. Examples include disaster relief and helping strangers in emergencies.

• True altruism: Debate exists whether pure altruism is possible, as some argue all helping is ultimately self-serving.

Aggression, Attitudes & Prejudice

Aggression: Definition and Types

Aggression is any behaviour intended to harm another person or living thing. It can be physical, verbal, or a deliberate failure to act. Hostile aggression is driven by anger, while instrumental aggression is goal-oriented.

• Hostile aggression: Motivated by anger or emotion.

• Instrumental aggression: Used as a means to achieve a goal.

• Intention: The intent to harm is crucial in defining aggression.

Situational Influences on Aggression

Several factors can increase aggressive behaviour, including frustration, evolutionary pressures, media influences, aggressive cues, arousal, substance use, and temperature.

• Frustration-aggression theory: Frustration from blocked goals leads to aggression.

• Evolutionary theory: Aggression can serve survival functions.

• Aggressive cues: Presence of weapons or aggressive individuals increases aggression.

• Temperature: Higher temperatures are linked to increased aggression.

Culture of Honour

Some cultures encourage individuals to defend their honor, which can increase aggressive behaviour. Studies show that insults can raise testosterone and aggression, especially in cultures with strong honor norms.

• Culture of honour: Social groups may condone violence to protect reputation.

• Testosterone: Insults can increase testosterone and aggressive responses.

Attitudes & Persuasion

ABC Model of Attitudes

The ABC model describes attitudes as comprising affect (emotions), behaviour (actions), and cognition (thoughts). Attitudes influence how people respond to persuasive messages.

• Affective: Emotional response to an object or idea.

• Behavioural: Actions or intentions related to the attitude.

• Cognitive: Beliefs and thoughts about the attitude object.

Persuasion and the Elaboration Likelihood Model

Persuasion is the attempt to change someone's attitude to influence behaviour. The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) proposes two routes to persuasion: central (focused on information) and peripheral (focused on superficial cues).

• Central route: Involves careful consideration of arguments.

• Peripheral route: Relies on cues like credibility, attractiveness, and endorsements.

Peripheral Cues

Peripheral cues include perceived credibility, attractiveness, expertise, humor, ratings, and endorsements. These cues can influence attitudes when motivation or ability to process information is low.

• Source credibility: Trustworthiness and expertise of the communicator.

• Attractiveness: Physical or social appeal of the communicator.

• Endorsements: Influencers and ratings can sway opinions.

Message and Audience Characteristics

Two-sided messages are more effective than one-sided, and emotional appeals can be persuasive if they provide a way to reduce fear. Audience characteristics such as age, self-esteem, intelligence, and self-monitoring affect susceptibility to persuasion.

• Two-sided messages: Seen as more trustworthy.

• Emotional appeals: Can arouse positive or negative emotions.

• Audience: Young adults, low self-esteem, and low intelligence are more easily persuaded.

Cognitive Dissonance

Definition and Reduction

Cognitive dissonance is the unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs. People are motivated to reduce dissonance by changing behaviour, rationalizing, or adding new cognitions.

• Change behaviour: Align actions with beliefs.

• Change cognitions: Rationalize or deny conflict.

• Add new cognition: Introduce new thoughts to resolve conflict.

Prejudice & Discrimination

Definitions

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward an individual based on group membership. Stereotypes are specific beliefs about groups, and discrimination is negative action based on group membership.

• Prejudice: Negative feelings toward a group.

• Stereotype: Beliefs about group characteristics.

• Discrimination: Negative actions toward group members.

Nature and Roots of Prejudice

Prejudice is shaped by adaptive conservatism, in-group bias, and out-group bias. Explicit prejudice is openly expressed, while implicit prejudice is unconscious and measured by tools like the Implicit Association Test (IAT).

• Adaptive conservatism: Evolutionary predisposition to distrust unfamiliar individuals.

• In-group bias: Favoring one's own group.

• Out-group bias: Viewing outsiders as similar.

• Implicit prejudice: Unconscious biases shaped by socialization.

Implicit Bias and Real-World Consequences

Implicit bias can influence police shootings and other real-world outcomes. Research shows unconscious associations between certain groups and threat, leading to disparities in policing and community trust.

• Shooter bias: Officers more likely to mistakenly shoot unarmed Black suspects.

• Training: Exposure to counter-stereotypical imagery can reduce bias.

• Community trust: Racial disparities erode trust in law enforcement.

Roots and Contributing Factors

Prejudice is learned through parents, peers, and media. The scapegoat hypothesis suggests prejudice arises from blaming other groups for misfortunes, while the just-world hypothesis assumes the world is fair and blames victims.

• Scapegoat hypothesis: Prejudice as a way to blame others.

• Just-world hypothesis: Belief that victims are responsible for their fate.

• Conformity: Social pressure can reinforce prejudice.

Discrimination and Intergroup Conflict

Experiments like Jane Elliott's blue eyes-brown eyes and the Robber's Cave study demonstrate how discrimination and intergroup conflict arise and can be resolved through cooperation and shared goals.

• Jane Elliott experiment: Demonstrated effects of arbitrary discrimination.

• Robber's Cave study: Competition increases hostility; cooperation reduces tension.

Additional info: Expanded explanations and examples were added for academic completeness.