Chapter 6: Learning

Introduction to Learning

Learning is defined as a change in an organism’s behaviour or thought as a result of experience. It is a fundamental process that allows organisms to adapt to their environment. The most basic forms of learning are habituation (a decrease in response to a stimulus over time) and sensitization (an increase in responding over time).

• Habituation: Example: Not noticing the sound of a ticking clock after being in the room for a while.

• Sensitization: Example: Becoming increasingly annoyed by a dripping faucet.

Learning via Association

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning)

Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which an organism comes to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response. Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs are foundational in understanding this process.

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not elicit a particular response (e.g., a metronome).

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response (e.g., meat powder).

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The automatic response to the UCS (e.g., salivation).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, elicits a response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation to the metronome).

Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: The phase during which the CR is established by pairing the NS with the UCS.

• Extinction: The reduction of the CR when the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of the CR after a period of rest following extinction.

• Renewal: The return of the CR in a novel setting different from where it was acquired or extinguished.

• Stimulus Generalization: Similar CSs elicit the same CR (e.g., different tones producing salivation).

• Stimulus Discrimination: The CR is elicited only by specific stimuli, not by similar ones.

Higher Order Conditioning

Higher order conditioning occurs when a new neutral stimulus is paired with an existing CS, leading to a weaker CR. For example, a Coca-Cola bottle (CS1) paired with positive emotions can make a glass (CS2) elicit similar feelings.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

• Advertising: Products are paired with stimuli that elicit positive emotions to influence consumer behaviour.

• Phobias: Classical conditioning explains the acquisition and treatment of fears (e.g., Little Albert experiment).

• Conditioned Compensatory Response (CCR): A CR that is the opposite of the UCR, important in understanding drug tolerance and overdose.

• Fetishism and Disgust Reactions: Sexual attraction to nonliving things and aversions to safe foods can be established through conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

Definition and Key Concepts

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the frequency of a behaviour is controlled by its consequences. The organism emits behaviours voluntarily to obtain rewards or avoid punishments. This is also known as instrumental conditioning.

Key Differences: Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that if a behaviour is followed by a reward, it is more likely to be repeated. Learning involves forming associations between stimuli and responses, with rewards strengthening these connections.

B.F. Skinner and the Skinner Box

B.F. Skinner expanded on Thorndike’s work by designing the Skinner box, which allowed for the systematic study of operant behaviour in animals.

Reinforcement and Punishment

• Reinforcers: Outcomes that strengthen the probability of a response.

• Positive Reinforcement: Presenting a stimulus to increase behaviour (e.g., giving a gold star).

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing a stimulus to increase behaviour (e.g., turning off a loud noise).

• Punishment: Any outcome that weakens the probability of a response. Can be positive (adding a stimulus) or negative (removing a stimulus).

Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement refer to the pattern of delivering reinforcers. They can be continuous (every response is reinforced) or partial (only some responses are reinforced). Partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction.

• Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a specific number of responses.

• Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after an average number of responses.

• Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement after a specific amount of time.

• Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement after an average amount of time.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

• Animal Training: Using shaping and chaining to teach complex behaviours.

• Premack Principle: Reinforcing a less performed behaviour with a more preferred behaviour.

• Token Economies: Used in clinical settings to shape desired behaviours.

• Applied Behaviour Analysis: Used in autism interventions.

Combining Classical and Operant Conditioning

The two-process theory of anxiety suggests that anxiety begins with classical conditioning but is maintained by negative reinforcement (operant conditioning). For example, a person bitten by a dog (UCS) develops fear (CR) of dogs (CS) and avoids dogs, which reduces anxiety (negative reinforcement).

Cognitive Models of Learning

Latent Learning

Latent learning refers to learning that is not directly observable. It demonstrates that reinforcement is not always necessary for learning to occur. Tolman and Honzik’s studies with rats in mazes showed that rats developed cognitive maps and only demonstrated their learning when reinforcement was introduced.

Observational Learning

Observational learning is learning by watching others, without direct experience. Albert Bandura’s research demonstrated that children can learn aggressive behaviours by observing models. Mirror neurons may play a role in this process and in empathy.

Insight Learning

Insight learning involves sudden understanding or problem-solving, as seen in Koehler’s chimpanzee experiments. This suggests that some learning occurs through cognitive processes rather than trial and error.

Biological Influences on Learning

Conditioned Taste Aversion

Conditioned taste aversion is a unique form of learning where an organism learns to avoid a taste after just one pairing with illness, even if the illness occurs hours later. This shows that not all associations are equally learnable (contradicts equipotentiality).

Preparedness and Instinctive Drift

• Preparedness: Evolutionary predisposition to fear certain stimuli (e.g., snakes, spiders) more than others (e.g., cars, guns).

• Instinctive Drift: The tendency for animals to revert to innate behaviours after repeated reinforcement, showing biological limits to learning.

Learning Fads and Myths

Many techniques claim to enhance learning (e.g., sleep-assisted learning, accelerated learning, discovery learning), but research shows these are not more effective than traditional methods. Direct instruction is generally superior. Additionally, tailoring teaching to individual learning styles does not improve learning outcomes.