13.1 The Power of the Situation: Social Influences on Behaviour

Situational Influence on Behaviour: Mimicry, Norms, and Roles

Social situations can powerfully shape individual actions through mechanisms such as mimicry, adherence to norms, and adoption of social roles.

• Mimicry: Unconscious or automatic imitation of others’ behaviours, gestures, or expressions. Mimicry can facilitate social bonding and interpersonal harmony.

• Norms: Shared expectations or rules that regulate social behaviour in specific contexts. Examples include dress codes at work or rules against loud talking in a library.

• Roles: Patterns of behaviour expected of individuals in particular positions within a group or society. Roles help maintain social order but can also lead to conformity and loss of individuality (e.g., Stanford Prison Experiment).

Group Dynamics

Group dynamics refer to how individuals interact and influence each other within a group context. These dynamics affect behaviour, performance, and decision-making.

• Conformity: Adjusting one’s behaviour or thinking to match that of the group. Classic studies by Solomon Asch found that people conform to group consensus even when it contradicts their own perceptions.

• Social Facilitation: Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others; complex tasks may suffer.

• Social Loafing: Tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

• Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness and restraint in group situations, leading to impulsive or deviant acts (e.g., crowd behaviour).

To Act or Not to Act: Obedience, the Bystander Effect, and Altruism

• Obedience: Following direct commands, usually from an authority figure. Stanley Milgram’s experiments showed that individuals will respond to authority, even when actions go against their conscience.

• Bystander Effect: The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help someone in need when others are present. Fewer people intervene as group size increases.

• Altruism: Selfless concern for the well-being of others, often resulting in helping behaviour without expectation of reward.

Example: The case of Kitty Genovese, where multiple witnesses did not intervene during an attack, is often cited as an example of the bystander effect.

Working the Scientific Literacy Model: The Bystander Effect

• Identify the phenomenon (e.g., bystander effect).

• Consider alternative explanations (e.g., diffusion of responsibility, social influence).

• Evaluate evidence (e.g., empirical studies, such as Darley and Latané).

• Apply research: model the situation (e.g., emergency response training).

13.2 Social Cognition

Person Perception

Person perception refers to the processes by which individuals form impressions and make judgments about others. These impressions influence social interactions and relationships.

• Definition: The mental processes used to form impressions and draw conclusions about others’ traits, motives, and intentions.

• Attribution Theory: Explains how people infer the causes of others’ behaviour, distinguishing between internal (dispositional) and external (situational) attributions.

• Attractiveness Bias: Explains how people infer the causes of others’ behaviour, sometimes attributing positive qualities to friendly or attractive people they have just met (only contact during a conversation).

The Self in the Social World

Social psychology explores how individuals perceive themselves and how these perceptions are shaped by social interactions and cultural influences.

• Self-Concept: The collection of beliefs about one’s own nature, unique qualities, and typical behaviour.

• Self-Esteem: The evaluative aspect of the self-concept; how much value people place on themselves.

• Social Identity: The part of an individual’s self-concept derived from their membership in social groups (e.g., nationality, gender, sports fandom).

• Example: Identifying as a student and feeling proud of academic achievements.

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination are interconnected concepts that describe different aspects of biased attitudes and behaviours toward social groups.

• Stereotypes: Oversimplified and generalized beliefs about a group of people.

• Prejudice: Unjustified negative attitudes or feelings toward a member of a group based solely on group membership.

• Discrimination: Unfair treatment of members of a certain group (e.g., race, gender, religion) based on their group membership.

Example: Refusing to hire someone because of their ethnicity is discrimination.

Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Explicit vs. Implicit Measures of Prejudice

• Explicit Prejudice: Attitudes that are consciously held and can be reported directly by individuals.

• Implicit Prejudice: Attitudes that are automatic, unconscious, and may not align with explicit beliefs.

• Measuring Implicit Prejudice: Indirect measures such as the Implicit Association Test (IAT) assess automatic associations and biases.

• Example: An individual who explicitly endorses egalitarian values but still shows implicit bias on reaction time tasks.

13.3 Attitudes, Behaviour, and Effective Communication

Changing People’s Behaviour

Changing behaviour often requires altering underlying attitudes or beliefs. Psychologists study how communication, persuasion, and social influence can lead to lasting behaviour changes.

• Attitude Change: Refers to the process by which a person’s feelings, beliefs, or evaluations about a subject are modified.

• Persuasion: The act of influencing another person’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviours through communication.

• Application: Health campaigns may use persuasive messages to encourage healthy behaviours (e.g., anti-smoking ads).

Using the Central Route Effectively

The central route to persuasion involves careful and thoughtful consideration of the arguments presented. This route is most effective when the audience is motivated and able to process information.

• Key Features: Relies on logical arguments, evidence, and critical evaluation.

• Example: A doctor discussing the health risks of smoking is more convincing when using clear, factual information.

Using the Peripheral Route Effectively

The peripheral route to persuasion relies on superficial cues rather than the strength of the arguments. This route is effective when the audience is less motivated or unable to process detailed information.

• Key Features: Uses cues such as attractiveness, credibility, or emotional appeal of the source.

• Example: Celebrity endorsements in advertising persuade consumers without detailed product information.

The Attitude–Behaviour Feedback Loop

There is a dynamic relationship between attitudes and behaviours, where each can influence the other in a feedback loop.

• Attitude Influences Behaviour: People are more likely to act in ways consistent with their attitudes, especially when attitudes are strong and accessible.

• Behaviour Influences Attitude: Engaging in a behaviour can lead to changes in attitudes (e.g., cognitive dissonance theory).

• Example: A person who starts recycling may develop stronger pro-environmental attitudes.

14.1 Behaviour and Health

Smoking

Smoking is a significant health behaviour that contributes to numerous physical diseases and is a leading cause of preventable death worldwide.

• Nicotine Addiction: Nicotine is a psychoactive substance in tobacco that leads to dependence and withdrawal symptoms.

• Health Risks: Smoking increases the risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and respiratory illness.

• Example: Individuals who quit smoking can regain significant health benefits within months.

Obesity

Obesity is a condition characterized by excessive body fat that increases the risk of health problems.

• Causes: Obesity results from a combination of genetic, behavioural, and environmental factors, including overeating and physical inactivity.

• Health Consequences: Obesity is associated with heart disease, diabetes, certain cancers, and reduced life expectancy.

• Psychological Factors: Emotional eating, stress, and social influences can contribute to overeating and weight gain.

• Example: Individuals may eat high-calorie foods in response to stress or negative emotions.

Psychosocial Influences on Health

Psychological factors, such as social support, stress, and personality, play a crucial role in health outcomes.

• Social Support: Having strong social connections can buffer against stress and improve health outcomes.

• Personality Traits: Traits like optimism and conscientiousness are linked to healthier behaviours and outcomes.

• Stress: Chronic stress can negatively impact health by influencing behaviours (e.g., smoking, overeating) and weakening the immune system.

• Example: People with strong social support networks are more likely to recover quickly from illness.

14.2 Stress and Illness

What Causes Stress?

Stress is a psychological and physiological response to perceived challenges or threats, known as stressors.

• Types of Stressors: Can be acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term), and include life changes, daily hassles, and traumatic events.

• Appraisal Theory: An individual interprets a situation differently depending on their perception of the threat and their resources to cope.

• Example: A major exam may be stressful for one person but not for another, depending on their appraisal.

Physiology of Stress

The body responds to stress through a series of physiological changes designed to prepare for “fight or flight.”

• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Describes the body’s response to stress in three stages: alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

• Endocrine Response: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis releases cortisol and other stress hormones.

• Autonomic Nervous System: The sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate, blood pressure, and energy availability.

Stress, Immunity, and Illness

Chronic stress can weaken the immune system, increasing vulnerability to illness.

• Immunosuppression: Prolonged stress reduces the effectiveness of the immune response, increasing infection risk.

• Psychoneuroimmunology: Studies the interaction of psychological factors, the nervous system, and the immune system.

• Example: Students often experience more colds during exam periods due to increased stress.

14.3 Coping and Well-Being

Coping

Coping refers to the cognitive and behavioural strategies individuals use to manage the demands of stressful situations. Effective coping can reduce the negative impact of stress on well-being.

• Problem-Focused Coping: Managing stress by addressing the source of stress (e.g., seeking solutions, time management).

• Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing stress by regulating emotional responses (e.g., relaxation, seeking social support).

• Example: A student under academic pressure may use problem-focused coping by organizing their study time, or emotion-focused coping by talking to friends about their anxiety.

Perceived Control

Perceived control is the belief that one can influence or manage the events in one’s life. This perception is crucial for psychological well-being and can buffer the effects of stress.

• Definition: The extent to which individuals believe they have power over circumstances in their lives.

• Learned Helplessness: When individuals feel they have no control, they may develop learned helplessness, which is linked to depression.

• Example: Patients who believe they can influence their recovery process (e.g., by following medical advice) often experience better health outcomes.

Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Compensatory Control and Health

• Compensatory Control Theory: When people perceive a lack of personal control, they seek out external sources of order (e.g., government, religion) to restore a sense of stability.

• Application: Understanding compensatory control can help individuals improve well-being by fostering healthy strategies for regaining control under stress.

15.1 Defining and Classifying Psychological Disorders

Classifying Psychological Disorders

Psychological disorders are patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviours that are deviant, distressing, dysfunctional, and sometimes dangerous. Classifying these disorders is essential for diagnosis, treatment, and research.

• Diagnostic Classification: Classification of psychological disorders is based on standardized criteria, such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD).

• Example: Major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder are classified as distinct conditions based on symptom criteria.

Challenges with Classifying Psychological Disorders

• Symptom Overlap: Many disorders share similar symptoms, making differential diagnosis difficult.

• Comorbidity: Individuals can meet criteria for more than one disorder simultaneously.

• Cultural Influences: Cultural norms influence how psychological distress is expressed and understood.

• Stigma: Mental health diagnoses can affect access to care, complicating clear classification.

Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Culture and Diagnosing Mental Disorders

• Cultural Relativity: What is considered a disorder in one culture may be seen as normal elsewhere.

• Scientific Literacy: Involves considering evidence, considering alternative explanations, and evaluating the impact of cultural context.

Applications of Psychological Diagnoses

• Treatment Planning: Accurate diagnosis guides the selection of evidence-based treatment.

• Access to Services: Diagnosis is often required for insurance coverage and access to resources.

• Advocacy: Epidemiological data inform public health policy and resource allocation.

15.2 Personality and Dissociative Disorders

Cluster A Personality Disorders: Odd and Eccentric Behaviours

• Definition: Cluster A personality disorders are characterized by odd, eccentric thinking or behaviour. Individuals may appear socially detached or distrustful.

• Key Disorders:

  • Paranoid Personality Disorder: Distrust and suspicion of others without sufficient basis.

  • Schizoid Personality Disorder: Detachment from social relationships and limited emotional expression.

  • Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Acute discomfort in close relationships, cognitive or perceptual distortions, and eccentric behaviour.

• Example: A person who avoids social interaction and shows little emotional expression may be diagnosed with schizoid personality disorder.

Cluster B Personality Disorders: Dramatic and Erratic Behaviours

• Definition: Cluster B personality disorders involve overly emotional, dramatic, or unpredictable behaviour.

• Key Disorders:

  • Antisocial Personality Disorder: Disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others; impulsivity and lack of remorse.

  • Borderline Personality Disorder: Instability in relationships, self-image, and emotions; impulsivity.

  • Histrionic Personality Disorder: Excessive emotionality and attention-seeking.

  • Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy.

• Example: A person who manipulates others for personal gain and shows little remorse may be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder.

Cluster C Personality Disorders: Anxious and Fearful Behaviours

• Definition: Cluster C personality disorders are marked by anxious, fearful thinking or behaviour.

• Key Disorders:

  • Avoidant Personality Disorder: Social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation.

  • Dependent Personality Disorder: Excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive and clinging behaviour.

  • Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD): Preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control.

• Example: An individual who avoids social situations due to a fear of criticism or rejection.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

• Definition: Dissociative identity disorder is characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states or identities that recurrently take control of an individual’s behaviour.

• Symptoms: Disruption of identity, memory, consciousness, and awareness; often associated with severe trauma.

• Example: An individual who experiences amnesia and reports feeling like different people at different times.

15.3 Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive, and Depressive Disorders

Anxiety Disorders

• Definition: Anxiety disorders involve persistent and excessive anxiety and fear.

• Types: Includes generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobias.

• Symptoms: Restlessness, rapid heartbeat, sweating, difficulty concentrating, and sleep disturbances.

• Example: Specific phobia is an intense, irrational fear of a particular object or situation (e.g., heights, spiders).

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Definition: OCD is characterized by unwanted, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviours or mental acts (compulsions) performed to reduce distress.

• Example: Repeatedly washing hands, checking, or mental acts to prevent perceived harm.

Mood Disorders

• Definition: Mood disorders are psychological conditions that primarily affect a person’s emotional state.

• Major Depression: Persistent depressed feelings of sadness, loss of interest, and other symptoms that impair daily functioning.

• Bipolar Disorder: Involves episodes of depression and mania (elevated mood, increased activity, impulsivity).

• Example: A person who has prolonged, deep sadness or severe weeks of depression followed by periods of high energy and agitation may have bipolar disorder.

15.4 Schizophrenia

Symptoms and Types of Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder characterized by disruptions in thought, perception, emotion, and behaviour.

• Positive Symptoms: Hallucinations (false sensory perceptions), delusions (false beliefs), disorganized speech and behaviour.

• Negative Symptoms: Reduced emotional expression, lack of motivation, social withdrawal.

• Cognitive Symptoms: Impaired memory, attention, and executive functioning.

• Typical Onset: Usually late adolescence or early adulthood; can be chronic and disabling.

• Example: A person may hear voices that are not present (auditory hallucinations), or express beliefs that others wish to harm them (paranoid delusions).

Explaining Schizophrenia

• Genetic Factors: Family and twin studies show a strong heritability component.

• Neurobiological Factors: Abnormalities in neurotransmitters, brain structure, and functioning.

• Environmental Factors: Prenatal infection, malnutrition, and psychosocial stressors increase risk.

• Example: Individuals with a family history of schizophrenia are at higher risk.

16.1 Treating Psychological Disorders

Mental Health Providers and Settings

• Mental Health Providers: These include clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, and psychiatric nurses. Each provider has specific training and expertise in assessment and intervention.

• Settings: Treatment may occur in private practice, community mental health centers, hospitals, or outpatient facilities. The choice of setting depends on the severity of the disorder and the type of intervention required.

• Example: A person with severe and chronic psychosis may receive care from a psychiatrist in a hospital, while an individual with mild anxiety might see a counsellor in a community clinic.

Evaluating Treatments

• Evidence-Based Practice: Treatments should be supported by scientific research, such as randomized controlled trials.

• Self-Help Strategies: Peer-run networks and hotlines can be independently helpful, but are not a replacement for formal therapy. Their effectiveness varies and should be evaluated scientifically.

• Application: Evidence-based therapies and self-help books may help individuals manage mild symptoms, but the Scientific Literacy Model encourages critical evaluation.

Barriers to Psychological Treatment

• Stigma: Fear of judgment or discrimination can prevent people from seeking help.

• Financial Constraints: Cost of treatment and lack of insurance coverage are significant barriers.

• Accessibility: Rural or remote areas may have fewer mental health professionals, making it difficult for residents to receive timely care.

16.2 Psychological Therapies

Insight Therapies

• Definition: Aim to increase a person’s awareness of underlying motives and conflicts. These therapies are often called “talk therapies.”

• Psychoanalysis: Developed by Freud, this therapy uncovers unconscious conflicts.

• Humanistic Therapy: Emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization. Client-centered therapy (Carl Rogers) uses empathy and unconditional positive regard.

• Example: A client in humanistic therapy may explore feelings of inadequacy to achieve greater self-acceptance.

Behavioural, Cognitive, and Group Therapies

• Behavioural Therapy: Uses principles of learning (e.g., conditioning) to modify behaviour. Techniques include exposure therapy and reinforcement.

• Cognitive Therapy: Focuses on identifying and changing distorted thinking patterns.

• Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT): Integrates cognitive and behavioural techniques to treat a range of disorders.

• Group Therapy: Involves treating multiple clients together, providing social support and opportunities for interpersonal learning.

• Example: CBT helps clients recognize negative thoughts and reframe them, while exposure therapy can reduce phobias.

Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Virtual Reality Therapies

• Application: Virtual reality (VR) is used to expose clients to anxiety disorders, such as phobias or PTSD.

• Evaluation: Research supports VR as an effective adjunct to traditional therapies.

• Scientific Literacy Model: Encourages critical evaluation of VR’s benefits and limitations.

16.3 Biomedical Therapies

Drug Treatments

Drug treatments are a primary form of biomedical therapy used to manage and alleviate symptoms of psychological disorders. These treatments involve the use of medications that affect neurotransmitter activity in the brain.

• Psychopharmacology: The study of how drugs affect mood, perception, thinking, and behaviour.

• Common Drug Classes:

  • Antidepressants: Used to treat depression and anxiety disorders. Examples include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and tricyclic antidepressants.

  • Antipsychotics: Used to manage symptoms of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. They affect dopamine and other brain pathways.

  • Anxiolytics: Medications that reduce anxiety, such as benzodiazepines.

  • Mood Stabilizers: Used primarily for bipolar disorder to control mood swings.

• Mechanism of Action: Most psychiatric medications work by altering neurotransmitter activity in the brain, either by increasing or decreasing the availability of certain chemicals.

• Example: SSRIs like fluoxetine (Prozac) increase serotonin levels in the brain, which can help alleviate symptoms of depression.

Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Using MDMA (Ecstasy) to Treat Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• Scientific Literacy Model: This model emphasizes evaluating the quality of evidence, considering alternative explanations, and weighing risks and benefits.

• Recent Research: Studies on the use of MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, known as ecstasy) as an adjunct to psychotherapy for individuals with PTSD show promising results.

• Key Findings: Clinical trials have shown that MDMA-assisted psychotherapy can reduce PTSD symptoms in some patients.

• Risks: Potential for misuse, neurotoxicity, and adverse effects.

• Application: MDMA-assisted psychotherapy remains experimental and is not yet widely available.

Technological and Surgical Methods

• Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): A procedure in which controlled electrical currents are administered to the brain to treat severe depression and other disorders. Often used for severe depression unresponsive to other treatments.

• Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS): Uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain, typically used for depression.

• Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): Involves surgically implanting electrodes in specific brain areas to modulate neural activity, used experimentally for depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

• Psychosurgery: Rarely used today, but historically included procedures like lobotomy. Modern psychosurgery is highly targeted and used only in extreme cases.