Social Psychology: The Study of Social Influence

Introduction to Social Psychology

Social psychology examines how the presence, thoughts, and actions of others influence individual and group behavior. It explores the mechanisms behind conformity, obedience, group dynamics, and the attribution of causes to behavior.

Humans as a Social Species

Need-to-Belong Theory

• Need-to-belong theory: Humans have a biologically based need for interpersonal connection.

• Isolation is associated with increased anxiety, abnormal eating, and reduced cognitive functioning.

• Ostracism (being ignored or excluded) is a powerful social regulator, increasing aggression and distress.

• Example: Solitary confinement leads to negative psychological outcomes.

Situational Influences on Behavior

Mimicry, Social Norms, and Social Roles

• Mimicry: Unconsciously imitating others' behaviors, emotions, or expressions, which acts as social glue.

• Social norms: Unwritten rules for behavior in social contexts, often implicit and naturally emerging.

• Social roles: Expectations for behavior associated with particular positions (e.g., student, teacher, prisoner).

• Failure to conform to norms can result in ostracism.

Social Comparison Theory

Upward and Downward Comparison

People evaluate their abilities and beliefs by comparing themselves to others.

• Upward comparison: Comparing oneself to someone perceived as better, which can inspire motivation or cause envy.

• Downward comparison: Comparing oneself to someone perceived as worse off, which can boost self-esteem or foster complacency.

Attribution Theory

Internal vs. External Attributions

• Internal (dispositional) attributions: Explaining behavior based on personal qualities (e.g., intelligence, personality).

• External (situational) attributions: Explaining behavior based on context or environment (e.g., time of day, other people).

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize internal factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

Actor-Observer Bias

• We attribute our own actions to external factors but others' actions to internal factors.

• This bias occurs because we are more aware of our own situational constraints than those of others.

Why Attribution Errors Occur

• We often do not see the full situation affecting others.

• People are more noticeable than contexts.

• It is cognitively easier to judge people than to consider context.

Just World Hypothesis

• The belief that people get what they deserve, leading to victim blaming.

• This belief helps people feel safe but can perpetuate injustice.

Social Influence

Conformity

Conformity is the tendency to change behavior to match group norms due to real or imagined group pressure.

• Normative influence: Conforming to be accepted by others.

• Informational influence: Conforming because others are perceived as correct.

• Conformity increases with group size, presence of friends/family, task ambiguity, and public responses.

Asch's Conformity Study

• Demonstrated the power of group pressure in shaping judgments, even when the group is clearly wrong.

Groupthink

Groupthink is a decision-making style where the desire for unanimity overrides critical thinking and realistic appraisal of alternatives.

• More likely with strong leaders, homogenous groups, and discouragement of dissent.

Deindividuation

Deindividuation is the loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in groups, leading to increased deviant behavior ("mob mentality").

• Occurs in situations with anonymity and high group arousal.

Compliance and Obedience

Compliance Techniques

• Foot-in-the-door: Start with a small request, then follow with a larger one.

• Door-in-the-face: Start with a large request, then retreat to a smaller one.

• Low-ball technique: Offer a low price, then add additional costs.

Obedience

• Obedience is following direct orders from an authority figure.

• Essential for social order but can lead to harmful outcomes if not questioned.

Milgram Paradigm

• Milgram's experiments showed that ordinary people can commit harmful acts under authority pressure.

• Obedience decreased with increased distance from authority and increased with distance from the victim.

Helping and Harming Others

Prosocial Behavior

• Prosocial behavior benefits others, including helping, sharing, and cooperating.

• Situational factors (e.g., mood, victim characteristics, role models) influence helping.

Bystander Effect

• People are less likely to help in emergencies when others are present due to diffusion of responsibility.

• Helping requires noticing the event, interpreting it as an emergency, taking responsibility, knowing how to help, and acting.

Why Do We Help?

• Kin selection: More likely to help those genetically related to us.

• Norms of reciprocity: Helping others with the expectation of future help.

• Altruism: Helping others with no expectation of personal gain.

Aggression, Attitudes, and Prejudice

Aggression

• Aggression is behavior intended to harm others, either physically or verbally.

• Hostile aggression is driven by anger; instrumental aggression is goal-oriented.

• Situational influences include frustration, media, aggressive cues, arousal, substances, and temperature.

Culture of Honour

• Some cultures encourage defending honor, which can increase aggression and affect conflict resolution.

Gender and Aggression

• Research explores whether women are less aggressive than men and how anonymity (e.g., online) affects prosocial and aggressive behavior.