Social Psychology: The Study of Social Influence

Introduction to Social Psychology

Social psychology examines how the presence, thoughts, and actions of others influence individual and group behavior. It explores the mechanisms behind conformity, obedience, group dynamics, and the attribution of behavior, providing insight into everyday social interactions and societal phenomena.

Humans as a Social Species

Need-to-Belong Theory

• Need-to-belong theory posits that humans have a biologically based need for interpersonal connections.

• Social isolation is associated with increased anxiety, abnormal eating, and reduced cognitive functioning.

• Ostracism, or being excluded from social contact, is a powerful social regulator that can increase aggression and distress.

Situational Influences on Behavior

Mimicry, Social Norms, and Social Roles

• Mimicry: Unconscious imitation of others' behaviors, emotions, and expressions, acting as social glue.

• Social norms: Unwritten rules for behavior in social contexts, emerging naturally and implicitly.

• Social roles: Expectations for behavior associated with particular positions in a group (e.g., student, professor, prisoner).

• Failure to conform to norms can result in ostracism.

Social Comparison Theory

Upward and Downward Comparison

People evaluate their abilities and beliefs by comparing themselves to others. This can motivate self-improvement or affect self-esteem.

• Upward comparison: Comparing oneself to someone perceived as better; can inspire or discourage.

• Downward comparison: Comparing oneself to someone perceived as worse off; can boost self-esteem or foster complacency.

Attribution Theory

Internal vs. External Attributions

• Internal (dispositional) attributions: Behavior explained by personal traits (e.g., intelligence, personality).

• External (situational) attributions: Behavior explained by context or environment (e.g., time of day, other people).

Fundamental Attribution Error & Actor-Observer Bias

• Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to attribute others' actions to their character, underestimating situational factors.

• Actor-observer bias: Attributing our own actions to external factors, but others' actions to internal traits.

Why Attribution Errors Occur

• Situational factors are often less visible than personal traits.

• People are more noticeable than contexts.

• It is cognitively easier to judge people than to consider context.

Just-World Hypothesis

• The belief that people get what they deserve, leading to victim-blaming.

• Helps people feel safe but can perpetuate social injustice.

Social Influence

Conformity

Conformity is the tendency to adjust behavior to align with group norms or expectations. It is influenced by group size, presence of friends or family, task ambiguity, and whether responses are public.

• Normative influence: Conforming to be accepted by others.

• Informational influence: Conforming because others are perceived as correct.

Groupthink

Groupthink is a decision-making style where the desire for unanimity overrides critical thinking. It is more likely in groups with strong leaders who discourage dissent or in homogenous groups.

Deindividuation

Deindividuation refers to the loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in groups, often leading to deviant or aggressive behavior ("mob mentality").

Compliance

Compliance is yielding to direct social pressure. Common techniques include:

• Foot-in-the-door: Start with a small request, then escalate.

• Door-in-the-face: Start with a large request, then retreat to a smaller one.

• Low-ball technique: Offer a low price, then add additional costs.

Obedience

Obedience is following direct orders from authority figures. While essential for societal functioning, it can be problematic when individuals stop questioning authority.

Helping and Harming Others

Prosocial Behavior

Prosocial behavior benefits others and includes helping, sharing, giving, and cooperating. Factors influencing helping include the ability to escape, victim characteristics, mood, role models, conformity, and time pressure.

Bystander Effect

The bystander effect is the decreased likelihood of helping when others are present, due to diffusion of responsibility. Helping in emergencies involves noticing the event, interpreting it as an emergency, taking responsibility, knowing how to help, and acting.

Why Do We Help?

• Kin selection: More likely to help close relatives due to evolutionary advantages.

• Norms of reciprocity: Helping others with the expectation of future help.

• Altruism: Helping others without conscious self-interest.

Aggression, Attitudes, and Prejudice

Defining Aggression

• Aggression: Any behavior intended to harm another, either physically, verbally, or by omission.

• Hostile aggression: Driven by anger and intended to cause pain.

• Instrumental aggression: Means to an end, not necessarily driven by anger.

Situational Influences on Aggression

• Frustration-aggression theory: Frustration from blocked goals increases aggression.

• Evolutionary theory: Aggression can serve adaptive functions.

• Other influences: media, aggressive cues, arousal, substances, and temperature.

Culture of Honour

Some cultures encourage defending one's honor, which can increase aggressive responses to perceived slights or threats.

Prejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice involves negative attitudes toward groups, while discrimination refers to negative behaviors. Social psychology examines the roots and consequences of these phenomena, including the role of social influence, group identity, and societal norms.