Social Psychology

Introduction to Social Psychology

Social psychology is the scientific study of how the presence, thoughts, and actions of others influence individual and group behavior. It explores the impact of social contexts, relationships, and group dynamics on human thoughts, feelings, and actions.

• Key Question: How does the presence of other people (perceived or actual) influence the behavior of individuals and groups?

• Applications: WWII & Holocaust (obedience, prejudice), COVID-19 (compliance, stigma, trust, group identification, polarization, racial bias).

Humans as a Social Species

Humans have a biologically based need for interpersonal connection, as described by the need-to-belong theory. Social isolation is linked to increased anxiety, abnormal eating, reduced intelligence, and unhealthy behaviors.

• Example: Solitary confinement leads to psychological distress.

• Research: Twenge et al. (2002) found that perceived future isolation increases unhealthy behaviors.

Situational Influences on Behavior

Social behavior is shaped by situational factors such as mimicry, social norms, and social roles. These influences guide how individuals behave in various contexts.

• Mimicry: Adopting behaviors, emotional displays, and facial expressions of others; acts as social glue.

• Social Norms: Unwritten guidelines for behavior in social contexts; implicit and naturally emerging.

• Social Roles: Guidelines for specific positions within a group (e.g., professor, student, prisoner).

• Ostracism: Being ignored or excluded; increases aggression and distress.

The Power of Social Roles: The Stanford Prison Experiment

The Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated how quickly individuals adopt social roles, leading to extreme behaviors and loss of personal identity.

• Key Point: Social roles can override personal values and lead to deindividuation.

Social Comparison Theory

Social comparison theory posits that individuals evaluate their abilities and beliefs by comparing themselves to others. This process can be upward or downward.

• Upward Comparison: Comparing oneself to someone "better"; can inspire motivation or trigger envy.

• Downward Comparison: Comparing oneself to someone "worse off"; can boost self-esteem or create complacency.

Attribution Theory

Attribution theory explains how people interpret the causes of behavior. Attributions can be internal (dispositional) or external (situational).

• Internal Attributions: Based on qualities or actions of the individual (e.g., intelligence, personality).

• External Attributions: Based on context (e.g., environment, experiences, time of day).

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to attribute others' actions to their character, while ignoring situational factors.

• Actor-Observer Bias: Tendency to explain one's own behavior with external factors, but others' behavior with internal factors.

Why Attribution Errors Occur

• We often do not see the situation behind others' actions.

• People are more noticeable than contexts.

• It is cognitively easier to judge people than to consider context.

Just-World Hypothesis

The just-world hypothesis is the belief that people get the outcomes they deserve, leading to victim blaming. This belief helps people feel safe but can perpetuate injustice.

• Applications: Crime, poverty, workplace success, illness, natural disasters, sexual harassment.

Social Influence

Social influence encompasses conformity, deindividuation, groupthink, and obedience. These processes explain how group dynamics affect individual behavior.

Conformity

Conformity is the tendency to alter behavior due to group pressure. It can be driven by normative (desire to be accepted) or informational (belief others are correct) influence.

• More likely with larger groups, presence of friends/family, unclear tasks, public responses.

Groupthink

Groupthink is a decision-making style where group members seek concurrence, prioritizing unanimity over critical thinking. It is more likely with strong leaders and homogenous groups.

• Historical Examples: Bay of Pigs invasion, Challenger disaster, Walkerton E. coli contamination.

Deindividuation

Deindividuation is the loss of individuality and reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior, often seen in "mob mentality."

• Example: Abu Ghraib prison abuse, riots, online anonymity.

Compliance

Compliance is submitting to direct social pressure. Common techniques include:

• Foot-in-the-door: Start with a small request, then move to a larger one.

• Door-in-the-face: Start with a big request, then back off to a smaller one.

• Low-ball technique: Start with a low price, then add desirable extras.

Obedience

Obedience is adherence to instructions from authority figures. It is essential for societal functioning but can be problematic when individuals stop questioning authority.

• Milgram Paradigm: Demonstrated the extent to which people obey authority, even when it conflicts with personal conscience.

Helping and Harming Others

Prosocial Behavior

Prosocial behavior benefits others and includes helping, giving, sharing, and cooperating. Situational influences affect the likelihood of helping.

• People are more likely to help when escape is difficult, victim characteristics are favorable, mood is positive, role models are present, conformity is high, and they are not in a hurry.

Bystander Effect

The bystander effect is the tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present, due to diffusion of responsibility.

• Five Steps to Helping: Notice event, interpret as emergency, take responsibility, know how to help, help.

Why Do We Help?

• Kin Selection: More likely to help those genetically related.

• Norms of Reciprocity: Expectation to return favors.

• Learning: Social rewards and internalized values promote helping.

• Altruism: Motive to increase another's welfare without self-interest.

Aggression, Attitudes, and Prejudice

Aggression

Aggression is any behavior intended to harm another person or living thing. It can be hostile (driven by anger) or instrumental (goal-oriented).

• Frustration-Aggression Theory: Frustration from blocked goals leads to aggression.

• Evolutionary Theory: Aggression serves adaptive functions.

• Situational Influences: Media, aggressive cues, arousal, substances, temperature.

Culture of Honour

Some cultures encourage individuals to defend their honor, which can influence aggressive behavior and conflict resolution.

• Example: Increased aggression after insult, measured by testosterone and handshake firmness.

Gender and Aggression

Research explores whether women are less aggressive than men and how anonymity online affects both prosocial and aggressive behavior.

Additional info: These notes expand on brief points with academic context, definitions, and examples to ensure completeness and clarity for exam preparation.