Stress and Health

Understanding Stress

Stress refers to the physical, psychological, and behavioral responses to events perceived as threatening or challenging. It can arise from various sources and impacts both mind and body.

• Sources of Stress:

  • Conflict (internal or external)

  • Pressure (from others or self)

  • Frustration (internal & external)

  • Uncontrollability of the situation

• Types of Psychological Conflict:

  • Approach-Approach: Choosing between two desirable options.

  • Avoidance-Avoidance: Choosing between two undesirable options.

  • Approach-Avoidance: Deciding on a single option with both positive and negative aspects (weighing pros & cons).

Cultural Factors in Stress

Acculturative stress occurs when adapting to a new culture. Methods of acculturation include:

• Integration: Maintaining original cultural identity while adopting new culture's ways.

• Assimilation: Giving up old cultural identity to adopt new culture's ways.

• Separation: Rejecting new culture and maintaining original identity.

• Marginalization: Neither maintaining original identity nor accepting new culture.

General Adaptation Syndrome (G.A.S)

G.A.S describes the body's physiological reaction to chronic stress, consisting of three stages:

• Alarm: Initial reaction with hormonal release, increased heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, energy, and alertness ("fight or flight").

• Resistance: Continued adaptation to the stressor; symptoms lessen until stressor ceases or resources are depleted.

• Exhaustion: Resources are depleted, increasing risk of illness, disease, or death ("burnout").

Stress and Personality Types

Personality influences stress response:

• Type A: Tense, anxious, competitive, ambitious, perfectionistic, hostile, impatient.

• Type B: Mellow, relaxed, laid-back, less driven, slow to anger.

• Type C: Pleasant but repressed, internalizes anger and anxiety, difficulty expressing negative emotions.

• Type H (Hardy): Ambitious, hard-working, thrives on stress, feels in control, perceives problems as challenges, resilient, optimistic.

Coping with Stress

Coping strategies help manage, reduce, or minimize stress effects:

• Problem-Focused Coping: Direct actions to eliminate or reduce the source of stress.

• Emotion-Focused Coping: Indirectly changing emotional reactions to stressors.

• Social Support System: Network of family, friends, and others offering advice, support, comfort, or aid.

• Escape or Withdrawal: Leaving the presence of a stressor, either literally or psychologically (e.g., exercise, music, humor, journaling, reading, meditation, substance use, food, distraction).

• Primary Appraisal: Initial assessment of an event's threat level.

• Secondary Appraisal: Assessment of resources to cope with the stressor.

Suicide Prevention

Suicidal thoughts/behavior can be triggered by severe or prolonged anxiety, depression, hopelessness, loneliness, inability to experience joy, irritability, helplessness, etc.

• Never leave the person alone.

• Listen with genuine concern.

• Be supportive and non-judgmental.

• Share personal experience with depression.

• Call 911 for immediate intervention if needed.

Social Psychology

Social Influence and Behavior

Social psychology studies how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.

• Social Facilitation: Presence of others improves performance.

• Social Impairment: Presence of others worsens performance.

Attitudes

Attitudes are composed of three components (the 'ABC' model):

• Affective: Emotions

• Behavioral: Actions

• Cognitive: Thoughts

Attitudes are formed by direct contact, direct instruction, interaction with others, and observational learning.

Prejudice and Discrimination

• Stereotype: Assumed traits shared by all members of a group.

• Prejudice: Negative attitude toward a group (e.g., racism, sexism).

• Discrimination: Treating people differently due to prejudice.

Attribution Theory

Attribution is the process of explaining behavior:

• Situational Cause: Attributed to external factors (circumstances).

• Dispositional Cause: Attributed to internal factors (personality/character).

Social Influence

• Conformity: Changing behavior based on others (implied pressure).

• Compliance: Changing behavior due to requests.

• Obedience: Changing behavior at the command of authority.

Compliance Strategies

• Foot-in-the-door: Small request followed by larger request.

• Door-in-the-face: Large request refused, followed by smaller request.

• Lowball: Commitment obtained, then cost increased without knowledge.

• That's not all: Offer improved with extras before decision.

Persuasion

Persuasion is the process of changing attitudes, opinions, or behaviors.

• Key Elements: Messaging tone/tactics, content, source, target audience.

• Elaboration Likelihood Model:

  • Central-route processing: Focus on message content (facts, evidence).

  • Peripheral-route processing: Focus on non-content factors (appearance, personality).

Love and Attraction

• Rules of Attraction: Similarity, proximity, chemistry, reciprocity.

• Sternberg’s Triangular Theory:

  • Intimacy: Emotional closeness

  • Passion: Romantic and sexual feelings

  • Commitment: Loyalty and monogamy

Helping Behavior

• Bystander Effect: Help is less likely as the number of bystanders increases.

• Diffusion of Responsibility: Responsibility is shared among those present.

Theories of Personality

Personality Concepts

Personality is the unique and stable way people think, feel, and act. Temperament refers to enduring traits present from birth, influenced by genetics and biology. Character is a value judgment of moral and ethical behavior, shaped by learning and socialization.

Psychoanalytic Theory

• Levels of Consciousness:

  • Preconscious: Information available but not currently conscious.

  • Conscious: Current awareness of thoughts, emotions, behaviors.

  • Unconscious: Hidden, threatening thoughts and memories.

• Structures of Personality:

  • Id: Unconscious, present at birth, basic drives and instincts.

  • Ego: Deals with reality using logic, reason, rationality.

  • Superego: Moral compass, determines right vs. wrong.

Trait Theory: The Big Five (OCEAN Model)

The Big Five model measures personality using five basic dimensions:

• Openness: Willingness to try new things and experiences.

• Conscientiousness: Reliability, organization, work ethic, ambition.

• Extraversion: Desire to interact with others.

• Agreeableness: Flexibility, helpfulness, ease of getting along.

• Neuroticism: Emotional stability/instability.

Measuring Personality

• Behavioral: Observing typical behavior in clinical or natural settings.

• Interview: Verbal questions to evaluate personality (structured or unstructured).

• Projective: Ambiguous images prompt responses revealing personality.

• Personality Inventory: Surveys with standardized responses.

Psychological Disorders

Defining Abnormality

Psychological disorders are patterns of thought, emotion, or behavior causing significant distress, harm, or dysfunction.

• Criteria for Abnormality:

  • Deviation from norms

  • Subjective discomfort

  • Dysfunctional patterns

  • Danger to self or others

Theories of Psychopathology

• Psychodynamic: Repressed conflicts affect emotions/behaviors.

• Behaviorist: Learned/conditioned responses (classical, operant, observational).

• Humanistic: Mismatch between real and ideal self.

• Cognitive: Irrational/illogical beliefs and thought patterns.

• Biological: Genetic, chemical, or neurological factors.

Eating Disorders

• Anorexia Nervosa: Reduced eating, weight loss >15% below normal, often via starvation or excessive dieting/exercise.

• Bulimia Nervosa: Cycle of binge eating and purging (vomiting, laxatives, dieting, exercise), often maintaining normal weight.

Trauma and Stress Disorders

• Stress Disorders: Severe anxiety, mood, sleep, and concentration problems after traumatic events.

• Acute Stress Disorder (ASD): Symptoms last up to 1 month after event.

• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Symptoms last more than 1 month after event.

Anxiety Disorders

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Chronic anxiety with physical symptoms lasting 6+ months; "free-floating" anxiety.

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Intrusive thoughts (obsessions) relieved by repetitive behaviors (compulsions).

• Panic Attacks: Sudden intense panic, anxiety, and fear with physical symptoms.

• Phobia: Irrational, persistent fear of specific object/situation causing distress and dysfunction.

Mood Disorders

• Dysthymia: Mild/moderate depression lasting 2+ years.

• Major Depression: Severe depression lasting 2+ weeks.

• Cyclothymia: Mild/moderate mood swings between mania and depression lasting 2+ years.

• Mania: Excessive excitement, energy, elation, impulsivity, irritability.

• Bipolar Disorder: Severe mood swings between depression and mania (bipolar I & II).

Psychotic Disorders

• Schizophrenia: Severe mental illness with disordered thinking, bizarre behavior, and psychosis (inability to distinguish reality from fantasy).

• Delusions: False, unrealistic beliefs (persecution, reference, influence, grandeur).

• Hallucinations: False sensory perceptions (hearing, seeing, feeling things that do not exist).

• Personality Disorders: Persistent, rigid, maladaptive behavior patterns interfering with functioning.

• Antisocial Personality Disorder: No morals/conscience, impulsive, disregard for consequences.

• Borderline Personality Disorder: Moody, unstable, unclear identity, clings to others, fears abandonment.

Other Disorders

• Dissociative Identity Disorder: Formerly "multiple personality disorder," characterized by core and alternate identities.

• Psychosomatic Disorder: Psychological stress causes physical symptoms (e.g., headache, indigestion, hypertension).

Psychological Therapies

Types of Therapy

• Psychotherapy: 1-on-1 therapy to explore or resolve issues.

• Insight Therapy: Helps gain understanding of thoughts, feelings, behaviors.

• Action Therapy: Helps change maladaptive patterns of cognition or behavior.

Psychoanalysis

• Non-directive insight therapy originated by Sigmund Freud.

• Uses projective tests, dream interpretation, defense mechanisms, and explores early childhood experiences.

• Free Association: Patient talks openly about anything without fear of criticism.

• Resistance: Patient reluctant to explore certain topics.

• Transference: Patient transfers feelings for important people onto therapist.

Humanistic Therapy

• Person-Centered Therapy (PCT): Non-directive insight therapy by Carl Rogers.

• Reflection: Therapist restates/paraphrases client statements.

• Positive Regard: Unconditional warmth, respect, support, acceptance.

• Empathy: Therapist understands and relates to client feelings.

• Authenticity: Genuine, honest, sincere, open with client.

Behavioral Therapy

• Systematic Desensitization: Gradual exposure to phobic stimulus to reduce fear/anxiety.

• Flooding: Rapid, intense exposure to fear-provoking stimulus, preventing avoidance.

• Aversive Conditioning: Undesired behavior paired with unpleasant stimulus to reduce/eliminate habit.

• Eclectic Therapy: Combines elements from various approaches based on patient needs, goals, issues, and personality.

Barriers to Effective Therapy

• Differences in demographics or personality between therapist and patient can hinder therapy.

• Common barriers: language, social class, age/gender, ethnicity/culture, nonverbal communication.

Group Therapy

• Advantages: Moderated by professional, lower cost, exposure to others with similar problems.

• Disadvantages: Shared time, lack of privacy, less effective for severe disorders.

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