Culture in Sociology

Defining Culture

Culture in sociology refers to the total way of life of a society, encompassing not only high culture (art, literature, classical music) but also everyday practices such as food, clothing, and transportation. Sociologists study culture broadly to understand how it shapes and is shaped by social life.

• Culture: The shared beliefs, values, behaviors, and material objects that characterize a group or society.

• Society: A group of people living within defined territorial borders who share a common culture or cultures.

• Example: The United States is a society with an overarching American culture and numerous subcultures.

Dimensions of Culture

Overview of the Four Dimensions

Sociologists analyze culture through four key dimensions, each representing a different aspect of how societies function and interact.

• Normative

• Cognitive

• Language

• Material/Non-Material

The Normative Dimension

The normative dimension focuses on norms, which are culturally defined standards of appropriate and inappropriate behavior. William Graham Sumner identified three types of norms:

Norms and Immigrants

• Norms help members know how to act in various situations.

• Norms vary by society; immigrants may not know or bring the norms of their new country, leading to adjustment challenges.

The Cognitive Dimension

The cognitive dimension refers to patterns of thinking (cognition) that guide behavior. Societies develop unique ways of viewing the world, which can cause problems when different perspectives clash.

• Core American Thinking:

  1. Present vs. future/past orientation

  2. Linear vs. cyclical patterns

  3. Scientific vs. religious/philosophical terms

  4. Individualistic vs. collective terms

• Values: Values are what people see as good/bad, right/wrong, desirable/undesirable. They result from how people think about the world.

• Example: Belief in inherent evil may lead to support for strict law and order policies.

Dimension 3: Language

Language is the primary means by which societies communicate, both verbally and in writing. It is essential for meeting daily needs and transmitting culture across generations.

• Language is based on symbols: Any idea that stands for or represents something else.

• Symbols can be verbal (slang, sarcasm) or non-verbal (smiling, frowning).

• Shared symbols are crucial for effective communication; lack of shared symbols can hinder assimilation.

Dimension 4: Material and Non-Material Culture

The Dimensions Working Together

• Material and non-material resources guide what a society creates, buys, and uses.

• Language expresses values and beliefs, passing norms from one generation to the next.

• Cognition shapes values, which in turn form norms and guide behavior.

Key Sociological Theories and Concepts

Thomas Theorem

The Thomas Theorem states that if people define a situation as real, it is real in its consequences, regardless of its factual accuracy. This concept is important because beliefs drive actions, even if those beliefs are false.

• Example: Belief in negative stereotypes about immigrants can lead to policies and actions with real consequences.

Cultural Transmission Theory

Cultural transmission is the process by which beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviors are passed from one generation to the next. This allows societies to sustain themselves, but can also perpetuate harmful values.

Cultural Change

• Cultural Diffusion: Spread of ideas, inventions, and beliefs from one culture to another.

• Cultural Contact via Subcultures: Subcultures form within a main culture and may eventually merge into the larger culture.

Culture Shock

Culture shock is the social and psychological distress experienced when encountering a different culture. Reactions include:

Subcultures and Countercultures

Types of Subcultures

• Variant Subculture: Acceptable differences from the main culture (e.g., priests, nuns, Amish, homeschoolers).

• Deviant Subculture: Unacceptable differences (e.g., gangs, pimps, Mafia).

• Counter Culture: Groups that reject and seek to change or destroy the main culture (e.g., hippies, Republic of Texas).

Subcultures at Work

• Chain Migration: Immigrants settle in areas with family/friends.

• Ethnogenesis: Blending of old and new cultures.

• Convergent Subculture: Immigrants assimilate over time.

Assimilation, Marginality, and Persistent Subcultures

• Assimilation: Immigrant group functions within dominant culture without marked differences.

• Marginality: Stress from living between two cultures.

• Persistent Subculture: Groups that refuse to adopt the main society's lifestyle (e.g., Amish, Gypsies).

Structural Conditions of Immigration

Success Factors

• Job opportunities, security, housing, food, education, transportation

• Abundance of resources increases likelihood of successful assimilation

Problems in Assimilation

• Immigrant Fighting: Competition among immigrant groups for scarce resources

• Competition: Limited jobs lead to intense competition

• Scapegoating: Blaming other groups for problems

Social Stratification and Connection

Social Stratification

Social stratification is the layering of people according to valued goods and resources. In America, the most valued resources are:

• Power: Ability to get others to do what you want

• Wealth: Income and assets minus debt

• Prestige: Respect and admiration accorded to a social position

Connection to Assimilation

• Groups with more resources are more likely to assimilate successfully.

The Intersection Between Class and Immigrants

• Immigrants with cultures not aligned with dominant values struggle to succeed, especially in work, education, and money.

• Perceptions of a group impact their ease of assimilation.

Assimilation in American Life

Milton Gordon's Four Key Ideas

1. Social Class

2. Race/Ethnicity of the Immigrant

3. Region of the country

4. Urban vs. rural

Higher social class, proximity to dominant culture, and urban location increase likelihood of successful assimilation.

Capitalist Society and the Immigrant

• Capitalism may perpetuate poverty among immigrants due to lack of resources and opportunities.

• Discrimination, prejudice, and hate crimes create barriers to assimilation.

Strain Theory

Robert Merton's Strain Theory

Strain Theory explains how individuals adapt to the gap between societal goals and the means available to achieve them. Adaptations include:

• Conformity: Accepts goals and means (e.g., working to buy a house)

• Innovation: Accepts goals, rejects means (e.g., selling drugs to buy a house)

• Ritualism: Rejects goals, accepts means (e.g., working without aiming for success)

• Retreatism: Rejects both goals and means (e.g., homelessness)

• Rebellion: Substitutes new goals and means (e.g., starting a revolution)

Intergroup Conflict and Structural Differentiation

Intergroup Conflict

• Assimilation is harder when minority groups hold values very different from the dominant culture.

• Cultural Differentiation: Greater differences increase conflict and stress in assimilation.

Structural Differentiation

• Barriers such as economic conditions, safety threats, and value differences can hinder assimilation.

• Examples: Economic strain, border security, and value conflicts (e.g., work ethic, drug policy).

Power Structures and Ethnic Stratification

Ethnic Stratification

Structured inequality of minority groups within a dominant culture based on differential access to valued resources.

Additional info: These notes provide a comprehensive overview of sociological concepts related to culture, subcultures, assimilation, and social stratification, suitable for college-level study.