Chapter 6: Groups and Organizations

Section 6.1: Social Groups

Social groups are fundamental units of society, shaping individual behavior and social structure. Understanding the distinctions between different types of groups is essential for analyzing social interactions.

• Social group: Two or more people who regularly interact on the basis of mutual expectations and share a common identity.

• Social category: A collection of individuals who have at least one attribute in common but otherwise do not necessarily interact.

• Social aggregate: A collection of people who are in the same place at the same time, but otherwise do not necessarily interact, except in the most superficial ways.

Types of Social Groups

• Primary group:

  • Small in size

  • Extensive interaction and strong emotional ties

  • Lasts over time

  • Example: Family, close friends

• Secondary group:

  • Large in size

  • More impersonal than a primary group

  • Exists to achieve a specific purpose

  • Example: Workplace, classroom

Reference Groups, In-Groups, and Out-Groups

• Reference group: Sets a standard for guiding our own behavior and attitudes. Example: Family and close friends

• In-group: Members feel particularly loyal and take great pride in belonging.

• Out-group: Group with which an in-group feels it is competing for various kinds of rewards and compared to which the in-group feels superior.

Social Networks

• Social network: The totality of relationships that link us to other people and groups and through them to still other people and groups.

• Factors affecting social networks:

  • Social class

  • Race

  • Ethnicity

  • Gender

Section 6.2: Group Dynamics and Behavior

Group dynamics change as groups grow in size, affecting relationships, stability, and decision-making processes.

• Group size: Important for the functioning of a group, the nature of its members' attachments, and the group's stability.

• Dyad: Two-person group; relationships are emotionally intense but very unstable and short-lived.

• Triad: Three-person group; relationships are fairly intense and more stable than a dyad.

  • Advantage: Third member can help resolve disputes.

  • Disadvantage: Two members may become close and disregard the third.

Number of Two-Person Relationships in Groups

Group Leadership and Decision Making

• Most groups have leaders (e.g., parents in families, appointed leaders in secondary groups).

• Types of leaders:

  • Instrumental leader: Focuses on achieving group goals and accomplishing tasks.

  • Expressive leader: Focuses on maintaining and improving relationships and group harmony.

• Leadership styles:

  • Authoritarian leadership: Leaders make decisions on their own and enforce strict compliance.

  • Democratic leadership: Leaders involve group members in decision-making and consider their opinions.

  • Laissez-faire leadership: Leaders exert little or no leadership role, letting the group function on its own.

• Consensus: Some small groups operate by consensus, requiring agreement from all members.

• Gender differences: Women are more likely to be democratic leaders; men are more likely to be authoritarian leaders.

Groups, Roles, and Conformity

• Solomon Asch's experiment: Demonstrated that groups induce conformity due to pressure and perception differences.

• Stanley Milgram's experiment: Showed that people are willing to obey authority even if it means harming others.

• The Third Wave: Group processes can lead people to conform to standards, even undesirable ones.

• Zimbardo's Prison Experiment: Extreme behaviors in prisons stem from social structure and assigned roles.

Groupthink

• Groupthink: The tendency of group members to remain silent and go along with the desires and views of other group members, even against their better judgment.

• Can lead to negative consequences, such as agreeing on actions without considering alternatives.

Section 6.3: Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies

Formal organizations are large secondary groups with explicit rules and procedures designed to achieve specific goals.

• Types of formal organizations:

  • Utilitarian organizations: Provide income or personal benefit (e.g., corporations, universities).

  • Normative organizations: Pursue moral goals and commitments (e.g., churches, civic groups).

  • Coercive organizations: People enter involuntarily (e.g., prisons, mental institutions).

• Bureaucracy: A formal organization with features designed for efficiency.

  • Specialization

  • Hierarchy

  • Written rules and regulations

  • Impartiality and impersonality

  • Record keeping

• Disadvantages of bureaucracy:

  • Impersonality and alienation

  • Red tape (bureaucratic ritualism: excessive devotion to rules)

  • Trained incapacity

  • Bureaucratic incompetence

  • Goal displacement and self-perpetuation

• Michel's Iron Law of Oligarchy: Large organizations inevitably develop an oligarchy, or rule by a few, as leaders monopolize knowledge and power.

Gender, Race, and Formal Organizations

• Gender dynamics: Women face barriers such as the glass ceiling and occupational segregation, contributing to lower pay.

• Race dynamics: Laws have reduced discrimination, but people of color still face disadvantages in hiring, promotion, and salaries.

Section 6.4: Groups, Organizations, and Social Change

Groups and organizations play a crucial role in social reform and maintaining the status quo.

• Groups can be vehicles for social change (e.g., abolitionist movement, labor movement, civil rights movement, environmental movement).

• Groups also reinforce the status quo.

• Whistle-blowing: The act of revealing organizational practices believed to be illegal or immoral. Laws exist to protect whistle-blowers, but effectiveness varies.

Key Terms

• Social group:

• Social category:

• Social aggregate:

• Primary group:

• Secondary group:

• Reference group:

• In-group:

• Out-group:

• Social network:

• Dyad, Triad:

• Instrumental leader:

• Expressive leader:

• Authoritarian leadership:

• Democratic leadership:

• Laissez-faire leadership:

• Groupthink:

• Formal organizations:

• Utilitarian organizations:

• Normative organizations:

• Voluntary organizations:

• Coercive organizations:

• Bureaucracy:

• Bureaucratic ritualism:

• Iron law of oligarchy:

• Whistle-blowing: