Introduction to Biochemistry

Definition and Importance

Biochemistry is the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physicochemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms. It is fundamental to understanding the molecular basis of life and is essential for all biological and medical sciences.

• Vital to every organism: Biochemical processes are essential for life.

• Medical relevance: Knowledge of biochemistry is crucial for understanding disease mechanisms and for clinical practice.

• Prerequisite knowledge: A solid foundation in general and organic chemistry is recommended.

Learning Objectives

• Identify the types of molecules that form the structure and perform functions in the human body.

• Describe anabolic and catabolic reactions that produce energy and synthesize cellular components.

• Recognize dietary components necessary for normal metabolism and function.

• Understand biochemical malfunctions leading to pathology (e.g., diabetes, cardiovascular disease).

• Explain biochemical processes relevant to clinical evaluations and laboratory tests.

• Relate biochemical relationships to pathology, physiology, and pharmacology.

Biological Macromolecules

Main Classes

• Proteins (Units I & V)

• Carbohydrates (Units II & III)

• Lipids (Unit IV)

• Nucleic acids (Unit V, covered in Molecular Biology)

Amino Acids

Role and Diversity

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, which are the most abundant and functionally diverse molecules in living organisms. Proteins are involved in defense, movement, signaling, structure, and transport.

• Proteins are linear polymers of amino acids.

• Polymerization occurs via peptide bonds between amino acids.

General Structure of Amino Acids

All proteins are made from just 20 amino acids. Each amino acid consists of a central carbon atom (α-carbon) bonded to:

• A hydrogen atom

• An amino functional group (–NH2)

• A carboxyl functional group (–COOH)

• A variable side chain (R group)

At physiological pH:

• The carboxyl group is dissociated, forming a negatively charged carboxylate ion (–COO–).

• The amino group is protonated (–NH3+).

Peptide Bond Formation

Amino acids polymerize when a bond forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another. This covalent C–N bond is called a peptide bond.

• Peptide bonds are highly stable due to electron sharing between nitrogen and carbon, giving partial double-bond character.

• Peptide bond formation releases a molecule of water (condensation reaction):

Classification of Amino Acid Side Chains (R Groups)

The properties of amino acids are determined by their R-groups (side chains). Amino acids can be grouped into three main types based on the nature of their side chains:

• Charged (includes both acidic (–) and basic (+) side chains)

• Uncharged polar

• Nonpolar

Polarity and Charge of R-Groups

• Charged and polar side chains are hydrophilic: They interact with water and are often found on the surface of proteins.

• Nonpolar side chains are hydrophobic: They do not interact with water and tend to cluster in the interior of proteins (hydrophobic effect).

Examples and Applications

• Hydrophobic amino acids: Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine (found in the core of globular proteins).

• Hydrophilic amino acids: Lysine, Arginine, Aspartate, Glutamate (often involved in active sites or binding sites).

• Special cases: Cysteine can form disulfide bonds; Proline introduces kinks in protein structure.

Summary Table: Amino Acid Classification by Side Chain

Additional info: Further details on titration, isomerism, and the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation are essential for a complete understanding of amino acid chemistry and will be covered in subsequent sections.