Course Overview

This course, offered by the Faculty of Pharmacy at Rhodes University, provides an integrated foundation in Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology for pharmacy students. The biochemistry section is directly relevant to core biochemistry topics, including metabolism, macromolecule function, enzymatic regulation, and metabolic diseases. The microbiology and immunology sections extend into applied biomedical sciences, essential for pharmaceutical practice.

Biochemistry

Course Aims and Learning Outcomes

• Understand the principles of metabolism and integration of metabolic pathways.

• Compare the function and metabolism of macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids).

• Discuss the role of hormones (insulin, epinephrine, glucagon) in metabolic regulation.

• Apply metabolic knowledge to clinical settings and disease origins.

• Understand the role of vitamins as coenzymes and their impact on health.

• Interpret metabolic biomarkers for clinical diagnostics.

Main Topics and Subtopics

Metabolism

• Definition: Metabolism refers to the sum of all chemical reactions in the body, organized into metabolic pathways.

• Types of Metabolic Reactions:

  • Anabolic: Synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones (energy-consuming).

  • Catabolic: Breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones (energy-releasing).

  • Amphibolic: Pathways that function both anabolically and catabolically (e.g., TCA cycle).

• Energy Needs: The human body requires energy for cellular processes, primarily derived from ATP produced via catabolic pathways.

• Regulation: Metabolic pathways are regulated by hormones and allosteric enzymes, adapting to fed and fasted states.

• Clinical Relevance: Disruptions in metabolism can lead to diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and metabolic syndrome.

Carbohydrate Metabolism

• Role of Carbohydrates: Primary energy source; structural and signaling roles.

• Digestion: Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides (e.g., glucose) for absorption.

• Glucose Catabolism:

  • Glycolysis: Conversion of glucose to pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH.

  • Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle: Oxidation of acetyl-CoA to CO2, producing NADH and FADH2.

  • Oxidative Phosphorylation: Electron transport chain uses NADH/FADH2 to generate ATP.

• Redox Coenzymes: NAD+, FAD, and their shuttles (malate-aspartate, glycerol-3-phosphate) are essential for ATP production.

• Anaerobic Metabolism: In absence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted to lactate (lactic acid fermentation).

• Other Sugars: Fructose and galactose metabolism differ from glucose; disorders include galactosemia and lactose intolerance.

• Gluconeogenesis: Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources; regulated reciprocally with glycolysis.

• Glycogen Metabolism: Glycogen synthesis (anabolism) and breakdown (catabolism) are tightly regulated by hormones.

• Pentose Phosphate Pathway: Generates NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate; important for oxidative stress management.

• Hormonal Regulation: Insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine coordinate glucose metabolism.

• Clinical Disorders: Diabetes, cancer metabolism (Warburg effect), and hemolytic anemia affect glucose pathways.

• Ethanol Metabolism: Ethanol is metabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase; excessive intake leads to intoxication.

Lipid Metabolism

• Role of Lipids: Energy storage, membrane structure, signaling molecules.

• Lipolysis: Mobilization of triacylglycerols from adipose tissue; fatty acids transported to liver for oxidation.

• Fatty Acid Oxidation: β-oxidation in mitochondria produces acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH2.

• Special Cases: Unsaturated, odd-chain, and very long-chain fatty acids require additional enzymatic steps.

• Ketogenesis: Formation of ketone bodies during prolonged fasting or diabetes.

• Lipogenesis: Synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA; palmitic acid is a primary product.

• Lipoproteins: Transport lipids in blood; types include chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, HDL.

• Clinical Relevance: Serum lipoproteins are biomarkers for cardiovascular risk; atherosclerosis and Alzheimer’s disease are linked to lipid metabolism.

Amino Acid Metabolism

• Role: Building blocks of proteins, precursors for nitrogenous compounds.

• Nitrogen Balance: Homeostasis is essential; imbalance leads to disorders like kwashiorkor.

• Catabolism: Amino acids are classified as ketogenic or glucogenic based on their metabolic fate.

• Transaminases: Enzymes (require vitamin B6) that transfer amino groups; important for ammonia detoxification.

• Urea Cycle: Eliminates toxic ammonia by converting it to urea.

• Diagnostic Biomarkers: Serum transaminases indicate liver function.

• Special Pathways: Epinephrine synthesis requires vitamin C as a cofactor.

Haeme Metabolism

• Haemoglobin: Structure and function in oxygen transport.

• Haeme Synthesis: Multi-step pathway; defects cause porphyria, anemia, hyperbilirubinemia.

• Bilirubin Formation: Haeme degradation produces bilirubin; measured as a diagnostic biomarker.

• Folate and Vitamin B6: Essential for nitrogen and haemoglobin metabolism.

• Clinical Relevance: Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) monitors long-term glucose control.

Nucleotide Metabolism

• Synthesis: De novo and salvage pathways; energetically costly.

• Catabolism: Produces uric acid; excess leads to gout.

• Recycling: Essential for nucleotide pool balance and cellular economy.

Assessment Structure

Additional Info

• Weekly tutorials and practicals are mandatory for exam eligibility (DP certificate requirement).

• No prescribed textbook; resources provided via university online platform.

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