11. Translation

HbS results in anemia and resistance to malaria, whereas in those with HbA, the parasite Plasmodium falciparum is able to invade red blood cells and cause malaria. Predict whether those with HbC are likely to be anemic and whether they would be resistant to malaria.

Several amino acid substitutions in the α and β chains of human hemoglobin are shown in the following table.

Using the code table, determine how many of them can occur as a result of a single-nucleotide change.

Define and compare the four levels of protein organization.

What are the two common types of protein secondary structure, and how do they differ?

How do covalent disulfide bonds, hydrogen bonds with water, and hydrophobic interactions all contribute to a protein's tertiary structure?

List as many different categories of protein functions as you can. Wherever possible, give an example of each category.

Why are misfolded proteins a potential problem for the eukaryotic cell, and how do cells combat the accumulation of misfolded proteins?

How does an enzyme function? Why are enzymes essential for living organisms on Earth?

Exon shuffling is a proposal that relates exons in DNA to the repositioning of functional domains in proteins. What evidence exists in support of exon shuffling?